Family, domestic and sexual violence

Family, domestic and
sexual violence in Australia:
continuing the national story
2019

Family, domestic and
sexual violence in Australia:
continuing the national story
2019
ii
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ISBN 978-1-76054-532-1 (Online)
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DOI 10.25816/5ebcc837fa7ea
Suggested citation
Australian Institute of Health and Welfare 2019. Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia:
continuing the national story 2019. Cat. no. FDV 3. Canberra: AIHW.
Australian Institute of Health and Welfare
Board Chair
Mrs Louise Markus
Chief Executive Officer
Mr Barry Sandison
Any enquiries relating to copyright or comments on this publication should be directed to:
Australian Institute of Health and Welfare
GPO Box 570
Canberra ACT 2601
Tel: (02) 6244 1000
Email: [email protected]
Published by the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare.
Please note that there is the potential for minor revisions of data in this report.
Please check the online version at <www.aihw.gov.au> for any amendment.
iii
Contents
Summary vii
1 Introduction 1
What is family, domestic and sexual violence? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
How common is family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
Government policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
Reporting on family, domestic and sexual violence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6
Data sources and supporting materials used in this report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
2 Extent and nature of family, domestic and sexual violence 8
Rates of violence over time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10
Extent of intimate partner violence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
Nature of partner violence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
Emotional abuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14
Sexual assault. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16
3 Responses to family, domestic and sexual violence 18
Police responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19
Legal responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22
Hospitalisations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27
Income support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34
Specialist homelessness services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35
Family and relationship services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38
Technology assisted services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
Family, domestic and sexual violence workforce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41
4 Impacts and outcomes of family, domestic and sexual violence 44
Long-term health impacts and outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44
Homicide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49
5 Attitudes and behaviours relating to family, domestic and sexual violence 56
Community attitudes towards violence against women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57
Sexual harassment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61
Stalking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64
iv
6 Family, domestic and sexual violence in vulnerable populations 70
Children. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71
Young women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81
Older people. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84
People with disability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90
People from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .95
LGBTIQ+ people . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .99
People in rural and remote Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .101
Socioeconomically disadvantaged people . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .102
7 Family violence among Indigenous Australians 106
Prevalence of family violence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108
Responses to family violence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108
Impacts and outcomes of family violence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115
8 Key data gaps and data development activities 119
Prevalence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .119
Responses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .122
Presentation of data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .123
AIHW data development activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124
Other data development activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .128
Appendix: State and territory government policies on family, domestic and
sexual violence 129
Acknowledgments 132
Abbreviations 133
Glossary 134
References 137
List of fgures 144
List of tables 148
Related publications 148
v
This report is primarily a data report. As such, its emphasis on data can at times appear to
depersonalise some of the pain and suﬀering that sits behind the statistics. We would like to
acknowledge the serious impact and huge burden that family, domestic and sexual violence
can have on communities, especially women and children. It can inﬂict physical injury,
psychological trauma and emotional suﬀering. These eﬀects can last a lifetime and can aﬀect
future generations. It is our endeavour that, by bringing together various data sources, we can
strengthen the evidence base to build a more coherent picture of family, domestic and sexual
violence in Australia.
This information will help to inform government policies and plans and also assist in the
planning and delivery of violence prevention and intervention programs.
If this report raises any issues for you, these services can help:
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vii
Summary
Family, domestic and sexual violence is a major national health and welfare issue that can have
lifelong impacts for victims and perpetrators. It aﬀects people of all ages and from all backgrounds,
but predominantly aﬀects women and children. The Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) 2016
Personal Safety Survey (PSS) estimated that 2.2 million adults have been victims of physical and/or
sexual violence from a partner since the age of 15 (ABS 2017c).
How common is family, domestic and sexual violence?
have experienced physical or sexual
violence by a current or previous

1 in 6 women
17% or 1 6 million

partner since the age of 15

have experienced emotional abuse
by a current or previous partner
since the age of 15
1 in 4 women
23% or 2 2 million
1 in 5 women
18% or 1 7 million
have experienced sexual
violence since the age of 15
1 in 16 men
6 1% or 548,000
1 in 6 men
16% or 1 4 million
1 in 20 men
4 7% or 429,000
1 in 6 women
16% or 1 5 million
were physically or sexually
abused before age of 15
1 in 9 men
11% or 992,000
1 in 2 women
53% or 5 0 million
have been sexually harassed
since the age of 15
1 in 4 men
25% or 2 2 million
1 in 6 women
17% or 1 6 million
have experienced stalking
since the age of 15
1 in 15 men
6 5% or 587,000
viii
This report builds on the AIHW’s inaugural Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia 2018 report
(AIHW 2018b). It presents new information on vulnerable groups, such as children and young women.
It examines elder abuse in the context of family, domestic and sexual violence, and includes new data on
telephone and web-based support services, community attitudes, sexual harassment and stalking. It also
includes the latest data on homicides, child protection, hospitals and specialist homelessness services.
Family violence refers to violence between family members, typically where the perpetrator exercises
power and control over another person. The most common and pervasive instances occur in
intimate (current or previous) partner relationships and are usually referred to as domestic violence.
Sexual violence refers to behaviours of a sexual nature carried out against a person’s will. It can be
perpetrated by a current or previous partner, other people known to the victim, or strangers.
Some groups are more vulnerable

Vulnerable group	Key statistics
Children	Around 2.5 million adults have experienced physical and/or sexual abuse before the age of 15. Most often, a parent was the perpetrator of physical abuse and someone known to the child (not a family member) the perpetrator of sexual abuse (ABS 2017c). Many children have witnessed violence: 418,000 women and 92,200 men who had experienced violence from a previous partner said the children in their care had witnessed this violence (ABS 2017c). In 2016–17, there were 288 hospitalisations of children for abuse injuries perpetrated by a parent (217 hospitalisations) or other family member (71 hospitalisations) (AIHW analysis of National Hospital Morbidity Database). In 2017–18, 22% (26,500) clients seeking specialist homelessness services as a result of family or domestic violence were aged 0–9 (AIHW 2019d). In 2017–18, 159,000 children received child protection services: the rate of children receiving these services rose from 26 per 1,000 children in 2012–13 to 29 per 1,000 in 2017–18 (AIHW 2017, 2019b).
Young women	Young women aged 18–34 were 2.7 times as likely as those aged 35 and over to have experienced intimate partner violence in the 12 months before the 2016 PSS (ABS 2018a). In 2017, young women aged 15–34 accounted for more than half (53%, or 11,000) of all police-recorded female sexual assault victims (ABS 2018b).
Older people	In 2017–18, more than 10,900 calls were made to elder abuse helplines across Australia. Female victims outnumbered male victims in each state and the proportion of victims generally rose with age. Emotional and fnancial abuse were the most common types of elder abuse reported.
People with disability	When compared with people without disability, people with disability were 1.8 times as likely to have experienced physical and/or sexual violence from a partner in the previous year, and 1.7 times as likely to have experienced sexual violence (including assault and threats) since the age of 15 (ABS 2018a).
People from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds	Between March 2013 and June 2016, the Australian Federal Police received 116 case referrals for forced marriage involving young females. These commonly involved Australian citizens under the age of 18 with relatives alleged to have organised a marriage for them overseas without their full and free consent (IDC ICoHTaS 2016).

continued
ix

Vulnerable group	Key statistics
LGBTIQ+ people	People identifying with diverse sexual orientation were 1.7 times as likely to have experienced workplace sexual harassment in the 5 years before the survey as people identifying as heterosexual (AHRC 2018). Women who identifed as lesbian, bisexual, and mainly heterosexual were twice as likely to report physical abuse by a partner as women who identify as exclusively heterosexual (Szalacha et al. 2017).
People in rural and remote Australia	People living outside Major cities were 1.4 times as likely to have experienced partner violence since the age of 15 as people living in Major cities (ABS 2018a). People in Remote and Very remote areas were 24 times as likely to be hospitalised for domestic violence as people in Major cities (AIHW analysis of National Hospital Morbidity Database).
People from socioeconomically disadvantaged areas	People living in the most disadvantaged areas of Australia are 1.5 times as likely to experience partner violence as those living in areas of least disadvantage (ABS 2018a).
Indigenous Australians	Indigenous adults were 32 times as likely to be hospitalised for family violence as non-Indigenous adults (AIHW analysis of National Hospital Morbidity Database). In 2017–18, 25% of Indigenous specialist homelessness services clients sought assistance for family violence (AIHW 2019d). In 2017–18, 16% (48,000) Indigenous children received child protection services—a rate 8 times as high as non-Indigenous children (AIHW 2019b).

Stable rates of partner violence contrast with falling rates of overall violence
While national population surveys show that rates of partner violence and sexual violence have
remained stable since 2005, total violence from any person has declined signifcantly over this period.
Despite these relatively stable population survey rates, the number of people accessing services due
to family, domestic and sexual violence continues to rise: such as police, hospital, child protection
and homeless services.
The number of sexual assault victims recorded by police continues to rise
Police recorded 25,000 victims of sexual assault in 2017—8% more than the 23,000 victims in 2016
and the highest number since the data series began in 2010 (ABS 2018b). Around 8 in 10
(82%, or 21,000) victims were female.
More women are being hospitalised due to family and domestic violence
In 2016–17, there were 6,300 hospitalisations of adults aged 15 and over for assault injuries due to family
and domestic violence: 4,600 hospitalisations for women and 1,700 hospitalisations for men. From
2014–15 to 2016–17, the rate of hospitalisation of women assaulted by a partner rose by 23%, whereas
the rate for men remained relatively stable (AIHW analysis of National Hospital Morbidity Database).
More people are accessing specialist homelessness services due to family and
domestic violence
In 2017–18, more than 121,000 (42%) of people assisted by specialist homelessness services had
experienced family and domestic violence. Of these, more than 3 in 4 (78%, or 94,100) were female.
The rate of females assisted by homelessness services who had experienced family and domestic violence
rose by 32% between 2013–14 and 2017–18. For males, this rate rose by 40% (AIHW 2018c, 2019d).
The toll of family, domestic and sexual violence is substantial
The impacts of family, domestic and sexual violence can be serious and long-lasting, aﬀecting an
individual’s health, wellbeing, education, relationships and housing outcomes (AIHW 2018b).
Most of the available evidence on the impacts focus on women and children.
Several studies show that women who experience childhood abuse have worse physical and
mental health in adulthood (Loxton et al. 2006). Women who experienced domestic violence during
pregnancy were more likely to suﬀer depression, and other physical and psychological health
problems, compared with women who did not experience violence (Brown et al. 2015).
Partner violence is a major health risk factor for women aged 25-44—with mental health conditions
being the largest contributor to the disease burden from partner violence, followed by anxiety
disorders and suicide and self-inﬂicted injuries. Child abuse and neglect is the highest health risk
factor for women aged 0-44 and boys aged 0–14—with suicide and self-inﬂicted injuries being the
largest contributor to the disease burden, followed by depressive disorders and anxiety disorders
(AIHW forthcoming 2019).
1 woman is killed every 9 days and 1 man is killed every 29 days by a partner
Between 2014–15 and 2015–16, the National Homicide Monitoring Program recorded 218 domestic
homicide victims from 198 domestic homicide incidents. Over half (59%, or 129) victims were
female and 64% (82) of these female victims were killed by an intimate partner. There were also
89 male domestic homicide victims, with over 1 in 4 (28%, or 25) killed by an intimate partner
(AIC unpublished).
Between 2000–01 and 2011–12, 238 incidents of flicide (the killing of a child by a parent or
parent-equivalent), in which 284 victims were killed, were recorded by police in Australia.
Nearly half of children killed by a parent were killed by their custodial mother (Brown et al. 2019).
More people are recognising non-physical behaviours as violence
Most Australians have an accurate knowledge of what constitutes violence against women and do
not endorse this violence. More Australians are recognising non-physical behaviours as violence;
in 2017, 81% agreed that controlling or denying a partner money was a form of violence—up from
70% in 2013.
While most people’s knowledge of violence against women has increased, there are still some areas
for concern—1 in 3 Australians are unaware that women are more likely to be sexually assaulted by a
known person than a stranger; 2 in 5 are unsure where to access help for domestic violence (Webster
et al. 2018).
Key data gaps and data development activities
Notable information gaps exist on various aspects of family, domestic and sexual violence, including
inconsistent identifcation and lack of comparability between data sets; limited information about
vulnerable populations; and a lack of data about pathways, impacts and outcomes for victims,
perpetrators and their children.
The AIHW is working with data providers to improve the identifcation and collection of family,
domestic and sexual violence data in a range of areas, including hospitals, child protection,
and homelessness services. The AIHW is also working to fll data gaps in perpetrator interventions
and family, domestic and sexual violence services.
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019 1
1 Introduction
Family, domestic and sexual violence is a major health and welfare issue in Australia. It occurs
across all ages and all sociodemographic groups, but mainly aﬀects women and children. This report
continues the national story that the AIHW frst explored in Family, domestic and sexual violence in
Australia 2018 (AIHW 2018b). It examines the prevalence and impact of family, domestic and sexual
violence among at-risk groups, including children, young women, people with disability, and older
Australians, and has new data on sexual harassment, including sexual harassment in the workplace,
and stalking. Specifcally, it includes:
• new analyses from the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) 2016 Personal Safety Survey (PSS) and
the Australian Longitudinal Study on Women’s Health
• new data from telephone helplines, web-based support services, and family and relationship
services that provide information about people who seek help because of family, domestic and
sexual violence
• updated data on homicides, child protection, hospitals and specialist homelessness services
• updated data on community attitudes from the 2017 National Community Attitudes towards
Violence against Women Survey
• an update on what is being done to fll the data gaps identifed in the 2018 report.
What is family, domestic and sexual violence?
Violence can be described in many ways, and defnitions vary according to the legislation in each
Australian state and territory (COAG 2011). Family, domestic and sexual violence sits in the broader
context of all violence, and can encompass a range of behaviours.
Consistent with Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia 2018, this report focuses on aspects
of family violence, domestic violence and sexual violence. Box 1.1 provides details of the defnitions
used in this report and provides examples of acts and behaviours associated with family, domestic
and sexual violence. Figure 1.1 shows the intersection between the diﬀerent types of family, domestic
and sexual violence. Note that institutionalised abuse and broader categories of violence are not in
scope for this report.
2 Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019
Box 1.1: Family, domestic and sexual violence defnitions and examples
Family violence refers to violence between family members, typically where the perpetrator
exercises power and control over another person. Family violence is the preferred term for
violence between Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people, as it covers the extended family
and kinship relationships in which violence may occur (COAG 2011).
For this report, domestic violence is considered a subset of family violence and typically refers
to violent behaviour between current or previous intimate partners. In some data collections,
domestic violence is used more broadly and can include violence between any family members.
Sexual violence refers to behaviours of a sexual nature carried out against a person’s will.
It can be perpetrated by a current or previous partner, other known people, or strangers.
Dating violence refers to violence from a current or previous boyfriend, girlfriend or date. It has
been included in this report as it is particularly relevant to younger people who are less likely to
be in more formal living arrangements with their intimate partners.
Acts and behaviours associated with family, domestic and sexual violence vary in type, duration,
intensity and frequency and are further described below:
Physical violence can include slaps, hits, punches, being pushed down stairs or across a room,
choking and burns, as well as the use of knives, frearms and other weapons.
Sexual violence can include rape; sexual abuse; unwanted sexual advances or harassment and
intimidation at work and elsewhere; being forced to watch or engage in pornography; sexual
coercion; having sexual intercourse because you are afraid of what your partner might do;
forced prostitution; and trafcking.
Psychological and emotional abuse can include intimidation, belittling, humiliation,
coercive control and the eﬀects of fnancial, social and other non-physical forms of abuse.
The types of violence described here are not an exhaustive list of all possible acts and
behaviours that can be classifed under the umbrella term of ‘family, domestic and sexual
violence’. The term ‘violence’ also includes the attempt or threat of violence. Further details of
the diﬀerent types of violence are included in the Glossary.
Sources: COAG 2011; VicHealth 2017; WHO et al. 2013.
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019 3
Figure 1 1: Family, domestic and sexual violence
Notes
1. Intimate partner violence, domestic violence and family violence include multiple types of violence and are defned by the
perpetrator’s relationship to the victim. Sexual violence is a type of violence and is in scope of this report regardless of the
perpetrator. Broader forms of violence—such as elder abuse or visa abuse—are only in scope if the abuse occurred in the
context of family, domestic and sexual violence.
2. Violence and abuse that occurs in institutional settings is not in scope of this report.
How common is family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia?
The Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia 2018 report presented information from more
than 20 data sources to build a picture of what is known about the nature and extent of family,
domestic and sexual violence in Australia. It also identifed data gaps and emerging issues. The report
found that, according to the 2016 Personal Safety Survey, around 1 in 6 (17%, or 1.6 million) women
and 1 in 16 (6.1%, or 548,000) men had experienced physical or sexual violence from a current or
previous cohabiting partner since the age of 15 (Box 1.2). Women were more likely to experience
violence from a known person and in their home, while men were more likely to experience violence
from a stranger and in a public place (ABS 2017c; AIHW 2018b).
All violence
Violence from a family member
Sexual violence
Institutionalised
abuse
Violence from a
partner (domestic
violence or intimate
partner violence)
4 Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019
Box 1 2: How common is family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia?
Source: ABS 2017c.
Government policies
Family, domestic and sexual violence is a priority for Australian and state and territory governments.
The National Plan to Reduce Violence against Women and their Children—2010–2022 (the National Plan)
was released in 2011 with a vision that Australian women and their children could live free from
violence in safe communities. It focuses on the 2 main types of violence experienced by women—
family/domestic violence and sexual assault—and aims to achieve a ‘signifcant and sustained
reduction in violence against women and their children’ (COAG 2011). The National Plan provides a
framework for governments to deliver on 4 action plans over the 12 years.
have experienced physical or sexual
violence by a current or previous
partner since the age of 15
1 in 6 women
17% or 1 6 million
have experienced emotional abuse
by a current or previous partner
since the age of 15
1 in 4 women
23% or 2 2 million
1 in 5 women
18% or 1 7 million
have experienced sexual
violence since the age of 15
1 in 16 men
6 1% or 548,000
1 in 6 men
16% or 1 4 million
1 in 20 men
4 7% or 429,000
1 in 6 women
16% or 1 5 million
were physically or sexually
abused before age of 15
1 in 9 men
11% or 992,000
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019 5
The Third Action Plan 2016–19
The Third Action Plan 2016–19 of the National Plan outlined what governments, communities,
businesses and individuals could do to reduce violence across 6 National Priority Areas:
• prevention and early intervention
• Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander women and their children
• greater support and choice
• sexual violence
• responding to children living with violence
• keeping perpetrators accountable across all systems (COAG 2016).
The fnal, and Fourth Action Plan for 2019–22 will be released mid-2019, following endorsement
by the Council of Australian Governments. The Australian Government is working closely and
collaboratively with states and territories to develop the plan and fnalise their contributions to
making a signifcant and sustained reduction in violence against women and their children.
The Fourth Action Plan will focus on:
• prevention strategies for family and domestic violence in homes, work places and communities
• the provision of safe spaces for people impacted by family and domestic violence
• improvements to frontline services, including the national sexual assault, domestic and family
violence counselling service, 1800RESPECT
• provision of support and prevention strategies for Indigenous communities.
What the states and territories are doing
State and territory governments have a range of initiatives to prevent and respond to family,
domestic and sexual violence that operate across a number of sectors, including health, justice
and community services. This work aligns with the National Plan and includes:
• New South Wales Domestic and Family Violence Blueprint for Reform 2016–2021
• Ending Family Violence: Victoria’s Plan for Change
• Queensland’s Domestic and Family Violence Prevention Strategy 2016–2026
• Western Australia’s Family and Domestic Violence Prevention Strategy to 2022
• South Australia’s Women’s Safety Strategy 2011–2022
• Safe Home, Safe Families: Tasmania’s Family Violence Action Plan 2015–2020
• ACT Government Response to Family Violence, 2016
• The Northern Territory’s Domestic, Family and Sexual Violence Reduction Framework 2018–2028.
More information about these government policies is in the Appendix.
6 Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019
Reporting on family, domestic and sexual violence
As noted in Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia 2018, it can be difcult to accurately record
the extent of family, domestic and sexual violence in the population. Incidents frequently occur
behind closed doors and are often concealed by, and denied by, their perpetrators and sometimes
by their victims. Data sources can only capture incidents that are disclosed by the individuals involved
or recorded and/or reported to the relevant authorities (ABS 2017b).
This report pulls together a range of data from national data collections and surveys, including
data on prevalence and attitudes, hospital presentations, social support programs, recorded crime,
corrections and specialised family, domestic and sexual violence services. Figure 1.2 shows the range
of areas where data are drawn from. While no single data source can provide all the information
needed to report on family, domestic and sexual violence, bringing together these data sources
helps create a greater understanding of the subject (AIHW 2018b).
Although this report focuses on national data, it also uses data from some smaller collections and explores
available research to further our understanding of family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia.
As many of the data sources collect information about female victims of intimate partner violence
perpetrated by men, these incidents make up a large part of this report. However, the report includes
information about men’s and children’s experiences of violence, and the experiences of specifc population
groups where data are available. Data on perpetrators are limited, but reported where available.
Figure 1 2: Key data sources for reporting on family, domestic and sexual violence
Police, court
and corrections
Homelessness
services
Social
support
and
FDSV
services
Hospitals
Child
protection
services
Coroners
and
deaths
Surveys
and
research
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019 7
Data sources and supporting materials used in this report
The names of the specifc data sources used in this report are included in Figure 1.3 and further
details for each data collection are available online at https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/domesticviolence/family-domestic-sexual-violence-australia-2019/contents/data-sources-monitoring-familydomestic-sexual-violence. Also available online are data tables for all the fgures included in this
report, at https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/domestic-violence/family-domestic-sexual-violenceaustralia-2019/data.
Figure 1 3: National data sources used in this report for monitoring family, domestic and
sexual violence in Australia
New data sources
• Elder abuse hotlines (various sources)
• Family and relationship services, Relationships Australia 2017–18
• AHRC National Survey on Sexual Harassment in Australian Workplaces, 2018
• National Survey of Workers in the Domestic, Family and Sexual Violence Sectors
Updated data sources
• National Community Attitudes towards Violence against Women Survey, 2017
• ABS Recorded Crime—Victims, Australia, 2017
• ABS Recorded Crime—Oﬀenders, Australia, 2017–18
• ABS Criminal Courts, 2017–18
• AIHW Child Protection National Minimum Data Set, 2017–18
• AIHW Specialist Homelessness Services Collection, 2017–18
• AIHW National Hospital Morbidity Database, 2016–17
• Australian Burden of Disease Study, 2018
• Department of Human Services Centrelink Data, 2017–18
Further analysis of existing data sources
• ABS Personal Safety Survey, 2016
• ABS National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Survey
• Australian Longitudinal Study on Women’s Health
• Longitudinal Study of Australian Children
8 Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019
2 Extent and nature of
family, domestic and
sexual violence
Key fndings
Since the age of 15:
• 1 in 6 (17%, or 1.6 million) women and 1 in 16 (6.1%, or 548,000) men had experienced
physical and/or sexual violence from a current or previous cohabiting partner.
• 1 in 20 (5.1%, or 935,000) people had experienced violence from a current or previous
boyfriend, girlfriend or date—7.4% (694,000) women and 1.9% (174,000) men.
• 1 in 4 (23%, or 2.2 million) women and 1 in 6 (16%, or 1.4 million) men have experienced
emotional abuse from a current or previous partner.
• More than 1 in 2 (57%, or 958,000) women and 1 in 4 (24%, or 247,000) men who have
experienced emotional abuse from a previous partner have also been assaulted or
threatened with assault.
• 1 in 5 (18%, or 1.7 million) women and 1 in 20 (4.7%, or 429,000) men have experienced
sexual violence.
Although family, domestic and sexual violence occurs across all age and sociodemographic groups,
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia 2018 showed that women were overwhelmingly the
victims of these types of violence. Partners posed the greatest risk of physical and sexual violence
and emotional abuse against women (AIHW 2018b; ABS 2017c).
The most recent prevalence estimates of family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia are
from the ABS 2016 PSS. This chapter presents additional PSS analyses, including an in-depth look
at intimate partner violence, dating violence, emotional abuse and violence that occurs during
separation. See Box 2.1 for further details on the ABS PSS.
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019 9
Box 2 1: Australian Bureau of Statistics Personal Safety Survey
The PSS provides national data on the prevalence of violence experienced by women and men.
‘Violence’ refers to any incident involving the occurrence, attempt or threat of either physical or
sexual assault. Where a person has experienced more than 1 type of violence, their experiences
are counted separately for each type.
The PSS collects in-depth information from women and men aged 18 and over about any
violence experienced:
• since the age of 15
• in the 12 months before the survey.
Violence since the age of 15 can refer to any 1 or more incidents of physical and/or sexual
violence. A person who has experienced violence since the age of 15 did not necessarily
experience ongoing violence.
Physical violence: the occurrence, attempt or threat of physical assault.
Sexual violence: sexual assaults, attempts of sexual assault, and sexual threat.
Emotional abuse: a set of behaviours used to control, manipulate, isolate and intimidate
another person with the intent of causing harm or fear.
In the PSS (and in this report), violence or emotional abuse from a cohabiting partner is from
a person with whom the respondent currently lives (or lived with), in a married or de-facto
relationship.
Dating violence in this report refers to violence from a boyfriend/girlfriend or date or
ex-boyfriend/ex-girlfriend.
Partner violence is physical and/or sexual violence perpetrated by a cohabiting partner.
Intimate partner violence includes both dating violence and partner violence, and is violence
perpetrated by a cohabiting partner, boyfriend/girlfriend or date or ex-boyfriend/ex-girlfriend.
Current partner, in the PSS, means a partner with whom the respondent is living in a married or
de-facto relationship at the time of the survey.
Previous partner, in the PSS, means a partner with whom the respondent used to live in a
married or de-facto relationship, but from whom the respondent has now separated, divorced or
become widowed at the time of the survey. Violence from a previous partner may have occurred
during the relationship or after the relationship ended.
Temporary separation, in the PSS, includes breaking up and starting the relationship again at a
later time; both people may have continued living in the same home.
The PSS also collects some data about the characteristics of the respondent’s most recent
incident of violence; about abuse experienced before the age of 15; and about whether
respondents experienced more than 1 violent incident by their current partner and/or their most
recently violent previous partner. Violence from a previous partner could have occurred during
the relationship or after the separation.
Source: ABS 2017b.
10 Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019
Rates of violence over time
Data from the 2016 PSS show that partner violence and sexual violence have remained relatively
stable over the last decade. Partner violence includes physical and/or sexual violence from a current
or previous cohabiting partner.
Rates of partner violence against women in the 12 months before the PSS was 1.5% in the 2005
survey, 1.5% in the 2012 survey and 1.7% in the 2016 survey. Rates of partner violence against men
in the 12 months before the PSS increased from 0.4% in 2005 to 0.8% in 2016, but there was no
signifcant change (0.6%) between the 2012 and 2016 surveys.
The relatively stable rates of partner and sexual violence over the last decade contrast with declines
in total violence. Most of the declines have been driven by a drop in physical violence, falling from
7.5% in 2005 to 4.5% in 2016 (Figure 2.1) (ABS 2017c).
Figure 2 1: Proportions of women and men aged 18 and over who experienced physical,
sexual and partner violence in the 12 months prior to the 2005, 2012 and 2016 surveys
Note: ‘Physical violence’ includes physical assault and/or physical threat. ‘Sexual violence’ includes sexual assault and/or sexual
threat. ‘Partner violence’ includes physical and/or sexual violence perpetrated by a current or previous cohabiting partner.
People may have experienced multiple types of violence. Components therefore may not add to the totals.
Sources: ABS 2006, 2013b, 2017c.
8 6 4 2 0
10
12
Total
violence
Physical
violence
Sexual
violence
Physical and/or
sexual violence
from a partner
Physical and/or
sexual violence
from a partner
Women
2005 2012 2016 2005 2012 2016
8 6 4 2 0
10
12
Total
violence
Physical
violence
Sexual
violence
Men
Per cent Per cent
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019 11
Extent of intimate partner violence
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia 2018 reported on violence between current or
previous cohabiting partners (also known as ‘partner violence’). This report expands on partner
violence by also examining physical and/or sexual violence between current or previous boyfriends,
girlfriends and dates (also known as ‘dating violence’). ‘Intimate partner violence’ includes both
partner violence and dating violence.
When looking at the broader defnition of intimate partner violence, including dating violence, it is
apparent that more people are aﬀected. Almost 1 in 4 (23%, or 2.2 million) women and 1 in 12
(7.8%, or 704,000) men have experienced intimate partner violence since the age of 15 (ABS 2017c).
This section looks at the prevalence of the diﬀerent forms of intimate partner violence.
Dating violence
Dating violence is a subset of intimate partner violence, and the perpetrator and victim relationships
may have diﬀerent levels of commitment that do not involve living together. Dating violence includes
relationships between people who are in a serious sexual or emotional relationship; are dating
regularly with no sexual involvement; or have had 1 date only. The couples do not live together,
and have not lived together in the past. Dating violence excludes violence perpetrated by a current
or previous cohabiting partner living in a married or de-facto relationship (ABS 2017c).
As with partner violence, experiences of dating violence are more common among women than men.
One in 20 (5.1%, or 935,000) people have experienced violence from a current or previous boyfriend,
girlfriend or date since the age of 15: 7.4% (694,000) women and 1.9% (174,000) men (Figure 2.2)
(ABS 2017c).
Figure 2 2: Women and men aged 18 and over who had experienced dating violence,
cohabiting partner violence, or any intimate partner violence since the age of 15
Note: ‘Intimate partner violence’ includes dating violence and partner violence. People who experienced both dating violence
and partner violence are counted only once in ‘total intimate partner violence’. ‘Violence’ includes physical and/or sexual
violence and does not include emotional abuse.
Source: ABS 2018a.
5 0
10
15
20
25
Dating violence Partner violence Total intimate partner
violence
Per cent
Type of violence experienced
Women Men
12 Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019
Partner violence
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia 2018 reported that 1 in 6 (17% or 1.6 million) women
and 1 in 16 (6.1% or 548,000) men had experienced physical and/or sexual violence from a current
or previous cohabiting partner since the age of 15 (Figure 2.2) (ABS 2017c).
Around 15% (1.4 million) women and 4.4% (397,000) men had experienced physical and/or sexual
violence from a previous partner since the age of 15, compared with 2.9% (275,000) women and
1.7% (150,000) men who had experienced violence from their current partners (ABS 2017c).
The Australian Longitudinal Study on Women’s Health (ALSWH) found similar prevalence rates.
In 2015, 15% of women aged 20–25, and 15% women aged 37–42 reported ever being in a violent
relationship with a partner or spouse. Note, these estimates from the longitudinal study also include
experiences of emotional abuse and harassment, in addition to physical and sexual violence (Loxton
et al. unpublished). In 1996, 6.4% of women aged 70–75 reported ever being in a violent relationship
with a partner or spouse. The increase between 1996 and 2015 may be due to an increase over
time in the number of violent relationships, in the number of people who report being in a violent
relationship, or both (Loxton et al. unpublished).
Nature of partner violence
Many people stay in violent relationships
According to the 2016 PSS, 5.4% (275,000) women and 2.6% (150,000) men living with a current
partner said they experienced physical and/or sexual violence in their relationship. However, most
women (53%, or 103,000) and men (77%, or 94,900) did not want to leave the relationship (ABS 2017c).
Violence often begins or increases during periods of separation
Violence often starts during separation, even when there is no history of violence during the relationship
(Bruton and Tyson 2018). ‘Temporary separation’ includes breaking up and starting the relationship
again at a later time; both people may have continued living in the same home (ABS 2017b).
One in 2 (49%, or 618,000) women who experienced violence from a previous partner temporarily
separated from that partner. Of those women who moved away from home during temporary
separation, 2 in 5 (39%, or 153,000) experienced violence during this time. Around 1 in 7 women
(14%, or 56,300) experienced violence for the frst time during the separation period and another
14% (53,300) experienced increased violence during the separation (ABS 2017c).
Of the men who experienced violence from a previous partner, almost 2 in 5 (38%, or 142,000)
temporarily separated from their violent partner. More than 1 in 3 (35%, or 38,700) men who moved
away from home said that violence occurred while they were temporarily separated. Around 14%
(15,000) also said that violence increased during the temporary separation; however, estimates of
men who experienced violence during separation should be interpreted with caution, due to small
numbers (ABS 2017c).
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019 13
3 in 5 separated parents experience physical or emotional abuse from their
previous partner
Violence is commonly reported between separating parents, before and after separation.
The Experiences of Separated Parents Study surveyed 3 groups of separated parents on their
experiences with family violence before and after separation. Across all 3 groups, around 1 in 5
(20–21%) reported being physically hurt by their previous partners and 2 in 5 (38–39%) parents
experienced emotional abuse only. The majority of parents who experienced physical abuse also
experienced emotional abuse. (Kaspiew et al. 2015).
Women temporarily leaving violent partners are likely to stay with a friend or relative
Almost 2 in 3 (64%, or 392,000) women who temporarily separated from their most recently violent
previous partner moved out of home during 1 or more temporary separations, and 4 in 5 (81%, or
319,000) of those women stayed at a friend or relative’s house (Figure 2.3).
More than three-quarters (78%, or 110,000) of men who temporarily separated from their most
recently violent previous partner moved out of home during 1 or more temporary separations and
about 2 in 3 (68%, or 75,100) of those men stayed at a friend or relative’s house. However, data
about places stayed during temporary separations are not available for men, as estimates have a
high relative standard error and are considered too unreliable for general use (ABS 2017c). More
information about victims of family, domestic and sexual violence accessing homelessness services
is in Chapter 3.
Figure 2 3: Women who moved out of home during temporary separation from their
most recently violent previous partner, by places stayed during 1 or more temporary
separations, 2016
Note: Components for all places stayed during temporary separations are not able to be added together to produce a total.
Where a person has stayed in more than 1 place, they are counted separately for each place.
Source: ABS 2017c.
0
20
40
60
80
100
Friend or
relative’s house
Refuge or
shelter
Motel, hotel,
serviced
apartment,
caravan park
Boarding
house, hostel
Slept rough Relocated to a
new house or
rental property
Other
Per cent
Places stayed
14 Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019
3 in 10 women who experience violence from their current partners temporarily separate
Of the estimated 275 000 women who have experienced violence from their current partner since
the age of 15, 3 in 10 (30%, or 81,700) temporarily separated from their partner but then returned.
The reasons for returning included:
• 49% (40,400) said that their partner promised to stop assaults and/or threats
• 58% (47,500) said they wanted to work things out
• 57% (46,600) said they still loved their partner
• 47% (38,400) said they wanted to resolve issues with their partner (ABS 2017c).
Emotional abuse
Almost 1 in 4 (23%, or 2.2 million) women and 1 in 6 (16%, or 1.4 million) men have experienced
emotional abuse from a current or previous partner since the age of 15 (ABS 2017c). This section
looks in detail at the emotional abuse experienced by women and men from their most recently
emotionally abusive previous partner.
Emotional abuse happens repeatedly and often occurs with physical abuse
In the 2016 PSS, some men and women reported experiencing emotional abuse repeatedly. Three
in 4 (76%, or 1.3 million) women and 2 in 3 (66%, or 688,000) men who experienced emotional abuse
in their most recent previous cohabiting relationship experienced it ‘some’, ‘most’, or ‘all of the
time’. More than half (57%, or 958,000) women and 1 in 4 (24%, or 247,000) men who experienced
emotional abuse were also assaulted or threatened with assault (ABS 2017c).
Threats to harm or remove children is a common form of emotional abuse. More than 1 in 4 (27%,
or 747,000) people who experienced emotional abuse from a previous partner reported that the
abuse involved threats to harm their child/ren or take their child/ren away. There was no statistically
signifcant diﬀerence between the proportion of female (27%, or 454,000) victims and male (28%, or
293,000) victims who reported this type of emotional abuse (ABS 2018a).
Three in 10 (30%, or 828,000) victims of emotional abuse from a previous partner reported that the
abusive partner lied to the victim’s child/ren with the intent of turning them against the victim.
This was reported by 38% of male and 25% of female victims (ABS 2017c).
1.6 million Australians experience socially controlling behaviours from a previous partner
Six in 10 people (60%, or 1.6 million people) who experienced emotional abuse from a previous partner
were subjected to socially controlling and isolating behaviours, such as restricting the person from:
• contacting family, friends or community
• using the telephone, internet or family car
• going where they wanted to and who they saw (Figure 2.4).
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019 15
Socially isolating behaviour also included keeping track of where a person was and who they were
with (for example, constant phone calls, GPS tracking and monitoring through social media) (ABS
2018a). One or more of these behaviours were reported by 63% (1 million) women and 54% (561,000)
men. For both women and men, the most common socially controlling behaviours experienced were
control, or attempts to control:
• contact with family, friends or community (50%, or 839,000 women and 42%, or 435,000 men)
• where they went or who they saw (46%, or 783,000 women and 32%, or 331,000 men) (ABS 2018a).
Financial abuse is common in those who experience emotional abuse
Almost 1 in 2 (48%, or 812,000) women and 1 in 3 (35%, or 364,000) men who experienced emotional
abuse from their most recent previous emotionally abusive partner reported also experiencing
fnancial abuse (Figure 2.4). These behaviours consist of controlling or trying to control:
• knowledge of, access to, or making decisions about household money (38% of women; 22% of men)
• working or earning money (22% of women; 11% of men)
• income or assets (27% of women; 22% of men) (ABS 2018a).
Verbal abuse is the most common emotionally abusive behaviour
Shouting, yelling, or verbal abuse with the intent to intimidate was one of the most common behaviours
experienced by both women and men who had been emotionally abused by a previous partner
(Figure 2.4). Six in 10 (63%, or 1.1 million) women, and almost half (46%, or 484,000) men were
verbally abused (ABS 2018a).
Figure 2 4: Emotionally abusive behaviours experienced by adults aged 18 and over from
their most recently emotionally abusive previous partner, by sex, 2016
Note: A person may be counted more than once if they have experienced multiple emotionally abusive behaviours.
Source: ABS 2018a.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Social
control
Financial
abuse
Verbal
abuse
Lied to
family
Threats to
children
Threats to
pets
Damage or
theft of
property
Per cent
Behaviour experienced
Women Men
16 Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019
Sexual assault
One in 5 (18%, or 1.7 million) women and 1 in 20 (4.7%, or 429,000) men have experienced sexual
violence, since the age of 15. ‘Sexual violence’ can encompass a range of behaviours, and can
include both sexual threat and sexual assault. ‘Sexual threats’ are threats of a sexual nature,
made face-to-face, where a person believed it was able—and likely—to be carried out.
Sexual assault is the most common form of sexual violence in Australia, with 1 in 6 women
(17%, or 1.6 million) and 1 in 25 men (4.3%, or 385,000) experiencing sexual assault since the age
of 15. Sexual assault can include rape; attempted rape; aggravated sexual assault (assault with
a weapon); indecent assault; penetration by objects; forced sexual activity that did not end in
penetration; and attempts to force a person into sexual activity (ABS 2017c).
Information about sexual assault in this report is from a sample of the most recent incidents of
sexual assault of women by male perpetrators in the last 10 years. These data are not intended to
capture the full spectrum of sexual violence but to provide an overview of common characteristics
(Box 2.2) (ABS 2017c).
While data from the PSS are available on both women and men’s most recent incidents of sexual
assault in the 10 years before the survey, the number of men who had experienced sexual assault
is relatively small. Further, the estimates for sexual assault incidents involving a female perpetrator
are relatively small and are considered too unreliable for general use (ABS 2017c).
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019 17
Box 2 2: What are some common characteristics of sexual assault?
Sexual assault victims are more likely to be women, and perpetrators are more likely to be men.
For more than 600,000 women, the most recent incident of sexual assault by a male occurred in
the 10 years before the PSS survey (ABS 2017c).
How were these incidents experienced?
• The perpetrator was a known person in 87% (554,000) of the incidents.
• For 1 in 2 (52%, or 332,000) incidents, the perpetrator was an intimate partner; in 1 in 6
(18%, or 112,000) incidents, the perpetrator was a boyfriend or date. For 13% (84,700)
incidents, the perpetrator was a stranger.
• Assaults were most likely to occur in the respondent’s home (40% or 252,000) and alcohol or
other substances were involved in around half (50%, or 321,000) incidents.
How were the incidents perceived?
• One in 4 women (26%, or 166,000) perceived the incident as a crime at the time, while 2 in 5
(42%, or 268,000) perceived it as wrong, but not as a crime.
• More than 1 in 5 women (22%, or 139,000) perceived their incident of sexual assault as
‘something that just happens’.
What actions were taken?
• Half of the women (50%, or 317,000) sought advice or support after the incident. Of those who
sought help, the most common source was a friend or a family member (71%, or 225,000).
• In almost 9 in 10 incidents (87%, or 554,000), the police were not contacted. Common reasons
for this included women feeling like they could deal with it themselves (34%, or 189,000) or not
regarding the incident as a serious oﬀence (34%, or 187,000).
• One in 4 women (26%, or 143,000) who did not contact the police also said that they felt
ashamed or embarrassed about the incident.
What were the impacts of the incident?
• More than 1 in 5 women (23%, or 144,000) sustained physical injuries—the most common
being bruises (85%, or 123,000). Of the women who sustained injuries, 1 in 3 (33%, or 48,200)
consulted a health professional.
• Almost 2 in 3 women (57%, or 366,000) experienced anxiety or fear in the 12 months after
the incident.
Source: ABS 2017c.
18 Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019
3 Responses to family,
domestic and sexual
violence
Key fndings
• Almost half (46%, or 127,000) women and 7 in 10 (68%, or 102,000) men who experienced
violence from a current partner did not seek advice or support.
• Eight in 10 (82%, or 226,000) women and more than 9 in 10 (97%, or 146,000) men who
experienced violence from a current partner, never contacted the police.
• In 2017, at least 2 in 5 assaults recorded by police were related to family and domestic
violence, in selected states and territories.
• In 2017, police recorded 25,000 sexual assaults, an increase of 8% since 2016.
• In 2016–17, there were 4,600 hospitalisations of women and 1,700 hospitalisations of men
due to family and domestic violence.
• In 2017–18, 121,000 people who sought assistance from specialist homelessness services had
experienced family or domestic violence (94,100 females and 27,000 males).
Actions taken after incidents of family, domestic and sexual violence are referred to as ‘responses’,
and include informal support (such as disclosure to a friend or family) and formal support (such as
police and legal services, health professionals or housing assistance). This chapter expands on Family,
domestic and sexual violence in Australia 2018 by presenting new and updated data from police, courts,
child protection, hospital and homelessness services. New data are also presented from specialist
helplines and family and relationship services.
Family, domestic and sexual violence makes up a sizeable proportion of the activity across all these
service areas, and the numbers of cases presenting to these services are generally increasing
over time. Note that changes over time may be due to changes in reporting or detection, and do
not necessarily suggest that rates of violence have risen. Chapter 8 details work currently being
undertaken by the AIHW to improve the collection and reporting of data on specialist family and
domestic violence services and emergency departments.
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019 19
People often do not seek advice or support after incidents of family, domestic and
sexual violence
Due to relatively small numbers of male respondents seeking support after partner violence, estimates should be interpreted
with caution.
For those who did seek support following violence from a previous partner, 65% (560,000) women
and 54% (87,500) men sought advice or support from a friend or other family member (ABS 2017c).
Police responses
The 2016 PSS showed that people were unlikely to contact the police after physical and/or sexual
violence from a partner. Eight in 10 (82% or 226,000) women and 9 in 10 (97% or 146,000) men who
experienced violence from a current partner had never contacted the police (ABS 2017c).
Severe physical assaults are more likely to be reported to the police
A study by the Australian Institute of Criminology assessed which characteristics of domestic violence
aﬀected whether the violence was reported to the police. It found that women were more likely to
report violence than men, and a violent incident was more likely to be reported if it involved severe
violence, physical assault (compared with other forms of intimate partner abuse) and/or physical
injury. Frequent violence before the incident, and children witnessing the incident, also increased
the likelihood of reporting. Presence of a weapon and the oﬀender using alcohol were also linked to
higher reporting (Voce and Boxall 2018).
Data on family, domestic and sexual violence are recorded by police in the ABS Recorded Crime data
collections (Box 3.1).
For those who had experienced physical and/or sexual violence from a current
cohabiting partner:
1 in 2 (46%, or 127,000) women
never sought advice or support.
7 in 10 (68%, or 102,000) men
never sought advice or support.
20 Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019
Box 3 1: ABS Recorded Crime data collections
Police (and subsequent legal system) responses are recorded in the 2017 ABS Recorded
Crime—Victims, Australia data set and the 2017–18 ABS Recorded Crime—Oﬀenders data set.
As there is no consistent method to identify family and domestic violence incidents across
states and territories, family and domestic violence data from the oﬀenders data set are
considered experimental, and caution should be exercised when interpreting the results. It is
not recommended that the data from this set be compared between jurisdictions. Further work
is required to guide a consistent approach to the national reporting of oﬀences related to family
and domestic violence.
Note that any increases in the number of family and domestic violence incidents recorded by
police may reﬂect changes in reporting behaviour or variances in the police detection that have
occurred over the same time period.
At least 2 in 5 assaults recorded by police are related to family and domestic violence
In 2017, at least 2 in 5 assaults recorded by police across Australia (excluding Victoria and Queensland
where data were not available) were related to family and domestic violence. This proportion ranged
from 41% in the Australian Capital Territory to 61% in Western Australia (Figure 3.1) (ABS 2018b).
Figure 3 1: Proportion and total number of assault victims who were victims of family and
domestic violence-related assault, selected states and territories, 2017
Note: Data were not available for Victoria and Queensland.
Source: ABS 2018b.
Western Australia
61.3%
(18,800)

Northern Territory
58.0%
(4,500)

South Australia
43.9%
(7,100)

Queensland
Data not available
New South Wales
44.0%
(28,800)
Victoria
Data not available
Tasmania
44.7%
(1,400)
Australian
Capital Territory
41.2%
(965)
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019 21
For more than 6 in 10 female victims, the perpetrator was an intimate partner (ranging from 63% in
New South Wales to 87% in Tasmania.) Between 2016 and 2017, the victimisation rate (per 100,000
people) for family and domestic violence assaults fell in:
• New South Wales, from 383 to 366 victims
• South Australia, from 455 to 413 victims
• Western Australia, from 792 to 728 victims
• the Australian Capital Territory, from 240 to 235 victims.
In contrast, the victimisation rate (per 100,000 people) rose over the same period in:
• Tasmania, from 255 to 274 victims
• the Northern Territory, from 1,600 to 1,800 victims (ABS 2018b).
Note that, prior to 2016, data about victims of family and domestic violence recorded by police were
considered experimental and were limited in availability. For this reason, it is not possible to include
time series of analyses using data prior to 2016 (ABS 2018b).
Around 1 in 5 oﬀenders have at least 1 family and domestic violence-related oﬀence
In 2017–18, around 1 in 5 oﬀenders proceeded against by police within the reporting period had at
least 1 family and domestic violence-related oﬀence during that same time period. This was true
for all states and territories where data were available, except for Tasmania. As a proportion of all
oﬀenders, this ranged from about 13% (1,300) in Tasmania to 24% (2,900) in the Northern Territory.
Most family and domestic violence oﬀences were acts intended to cause injury. The proportion of
family and domestic violence-related oﬀenders proceeded against for acts intended to cause injury
ranged from 51% in Western Australia to 78% in New South Wales ABS (2019b).
The number of sexual assault victims recorded by police continues to rise
The 2016 PSS data showed that the proportion of Australians experiencing sexual violence has
remained steady over time. In contrast, the number of sexual assault victims recorded by police has
risen by 8% across Australia, from 23,000 victims in 2016 to 25,000 victims in 2017. The victimisation
rate also rose from 86 victims per 100,000 people in 2010 to 102 victims per 100,000 in 2017.
Of all sexual assault victims recorded by police in 2017:
82%
were
female
25%
were aged
between
15 and 19
60%
were assaulted
in a private
dwelling
34%
were victims
of family and
domestic
violence-related
sexual assault
22 Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019
The number of sexual assaults by any perpetrator, not just family members or intimate partners,
is the highest recorded since the beginning of the time series in 2010. This is the sixth consecutive
year the number of sexual assault victims has risen (Figure 3.2). From 2010 to 2017, the victimisation
rate for females rose from 144 to 166 victims per 100,000, and the victimisation rate for males rose
from 26 to 36 victims per 100,000. In comparison, the number of victims for most other oﬀences fell
nationally between 2010 and 2017, including:
• homicide and related oﬀences (down 10%, to 414 victims)
• robbery (down 34%, to 9,600 victims)
• burglary (down 15%, to 176,200 victims) (ABS 2018b).
Figure 3 2: Recorded sexual assault rates for females and males, all ages, 2010–2017
Source: ABS 2018b.
Legal responses
Legal responses to family, domestic and sexual violence oﬀences are recorded in both the civil and
criminal proceedings of state and territory courts. Civil proceedings can result in family and domestic
violence protection orders to protect victims from future violence.
Criminal proceedings punish oﬀenders for criminal conduct related to family and domestic violence.
Data about criminal proceedings are recorded in the ABS Criminal Courts, Australia, 2016–17 data set
and show how perpetrators (or defendants) of family, domestic and sexual violence incidents move
through the justice system where charges have been laid by the police.
Family and domestic violence protection orders
Family and domestic violence protection orders (DVO) are the most broadly used justice response
mechanisms for ensuring the safety of women and children exposed to family and domestic violence
(Taylor et al. 2015). DVOs vary between states and territories according to diﬀerent policies and
legislative practices (Box 3.2).
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017
Victimisation rate
(per 100,000)
Year
Females Males
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019 23
Box 3 2: National Domestic Violence Order Scheme
A domestic violence order (DVO) is a civil order issued by a court that sets out specifc conditions
that must be obeyed—such as stopping the respondent from contacting or communicating
with the protected person; tracking or attempting to locate the protected person; or going to,
or remaining within, a certain distance of the protected person.
In some states and territories, temporary protection orders can be issued by police. If a DVO is
breached, the matter becomes a criminal oﬀence.
On 25 November 2017, a National Domestic Violence Order Scheme was launched to recognise
and enforce all domestic violence orders issued in Australia. The scheme aims to better protect
victims and their families. While the laws ensuring the protection of victims and aﬀected family
members have not changed, local police are now able to enforce conditions regardless of where
the family or domestic violence order was issued.
Currently, there are no nationwide data available on the number of family and domestic violence
orders in eﬀect. However, in selected jurisdictions, data are available about the number of family
and domestic violence orders issued, or applied for, through the court systems.
In 2017, 29,400 Apprehended Domestic Violence Orders (AVOs) were granted by the court in
New South Wales (NSW Bureau of Crime Statistics and Research 2018)
In 2017–18:
• 39,600 Family Violence Intervention Order applications were made in the Victorian Magistrates’
Court (Crime Statistics Agency 2018)
• 40,600 Protection Orders were made in the Queensland Courts, including temporary
protection orders and variations (Queensland Courts 2018)
• 8,900 intervention orders (both domestic violence orders and non-domestic violence orders)
were issued in South Australia (Courts Administration Authority of South Australia 2018)
• 1,200 Family Violence Order applications were lodged in the Magistrates Court in Tasmania,
with 1,100 orders fnalised (Magistrates Court of Tasmania 2018).
Data were not available for 2017–18 in Western Australia, the Australian Capital Territory or the
Northern Territory.
Protection orders are typically issued under civil proceedings, but police are responsible for
enforcement. Breaches of protection orders are investigated and charged as criminal oﬀences.
In some jurisdictions, police may apply for protection orders on behalf of the victim or issue
interim or temporary orders directly. Victims are also free to lodge order applications themselves
(Dowling et al. 2018).
24 Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019
About 1 in 3 civil cases involve a family or domestic violence protection order
Applications or breaches of protection orders are generally dealt with at the Magistrates’ court
level. In 2017–18, about 34% (120,000) of all civil cases fnalised in the Magistrates’ courts involved
applications for DVOs (Figure 3.3). These cases exclude interim orders, applications for extension,
revocations or variations. Oﬀences such as breaches of protection orders are dealt with by state and
territory criminal courts (Productivity Commission 2019).
Figure 3.3: Proportion and number of civil cases fnalised in the Magistrates’ court involving
a family or domestic violence protection order, by state or territory, 2017–18
Notes
1. Only applications for family and domestic violence protection orders that originated in the Magistrates’ court are included.
2. In Tasmania, a higher number of orders are issued by police (Police Family Violence Orders). These have been excluded.
Source: Productivity Commission 2019.
Family courts
Matters relating to family and domestic violence can be heard in the Family Court of Australia.
The Family Court covers specialised areas in family law, and the most complex family law disputes.
The Family Court is not inclusive of all family law proceedings in Australia, as a large proportion are
heard by the Federal Circuit Court of Australia, for which no data are currently available. Data from
the Family Court of Australia also exclude cases heard in Western Australia.
Western Australia
20.7%
(10,000)

Northern Territory
79.7%
(4,200)

South Australia
16.8%
(4,300)

Queensland
52.3%
(30,800)
New South Wales
30.7%
(36,900)
Victoria
38.0%
(32,800)
Tasmania
12.7%
(700)
Australian
Capital Territory
22.5%
(800)
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019 25
In the Family Court, a ‘Notice of Child Abuse, Family Violence or Risk of Family Violence’ form is
mandatory in cases where a child in a proceeding is alleged to have been abused, or is at risk of
abuse, or where there is an allegation of family violence, or risk of family violence involving a child
or a member of the child’s family (Family Court of Australia 2018).
The number of child abuse and family violence notices continues to rise
In 2017–18, the proportion of family orders cases in which a ‘Notice of Child Abuse, Family Violence
or Risk of Family Violence’ was fled rose to 30% (715 cases). The proportion of cases has steadily
risen from 14% (426) in 2013–14 (Figure 3.4). This rise may reﬂect an increase in the extent to which
violence plays a role in Family Court cases, growing awareness of family violence in the community,
or a combination of the 2. Note that these cases do not include those dealt with in the Family Court
of Western Australia (Family Court of Australia 2018).
Figure 3 4: Proportion of family orders cases in which a ‘Notice of Child Abuse,
Family Violence or Risk of Family Violence’ form was fled, 2013–14 to 2017–18
Notes
1. The proportion of matters in which a ‘Notice of Child Abuse, Family Violence or Risk of Family Violence’ has been fled does
not reﬂect all the cases in which family violence is raised or is an issue. Allegations of abuse or risk can be raised in other
ways, such as by afdavits fled in the proceedings, or by the fling of a Family Violence Order.
2. Data do not include cases dealt with in the Family Court of Western Australia.
Source: Family Court of Australia 2018.
The number of Family Court cases involving serious allegations of child physical and/or
sexual abuse is falling
In 2017–18, 93 cases involving serious allegations of physical abuse and/or sexual abuse of a child
were started in the Family Court of Australia, and 76 cases were fnalised. These cases are referred to
as Magellan cases, and undergo special case management by a team consisting of a judge, a registrar
and a family consultant. Typically, a Magellan case is addressed by the Family Court of Australia
where 1 (or both) parties have raised serious allegations of sexual abuse or physical abuse of children
in a parenting dispute. The number of Magellan cases has fallen since 2013–14, when 177 cases were
started and 145 cases were fnalised (Figure 3.5) (Family Court of Australia 2018).
5 0
10
15
20
25
30
2013 –14 2014 –15 2015 –16 2016 –17 2017 –18
Proportion of cases
26 Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019
Figure 3 5: Cases involving serious allegations of child abuse in the Family Court of Australia
(Magellan cases), 2013–14 to 2017–18
Note: Data do not include cases dealt with in the Family Court of Western Australia.
Source: Family Court of Australia 2018.
Criminal courts
Data from the ABS Criminal Courts data collection include information on the characteristics of
defendants dealt with by Australian state and territory criminal courts, including case outcomes and
sentences associated with those defendants. However, data relating to defendants of family and
domestic violence are only available for selected states and territories and for certain oﬀences.
For a full list of oﬀences, see https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/domestic-violence/family-domesticsexual-violence-australia-2019/contents/data-sources-monitoring-family-domestic-sexual-violence.
As there is no consistent method to identify family and domestic violence incidents across these
states and territories, family and domestic violence data from the ABS Criminal Courts are considered
experimental, and caution should be exercised when interpreting the results (see Box 3.1).
Most family and domestic violence defendants are found guilty
In 2017–18, the proportion of defendants ‘fnalised’ for family and domestic violence oﬀences who
are found guilty ranged from 66% in the Australian Capital Territory, to 84% in Western Australian
and the Northern Territory. ‘Finalised’ defendants include all individuals for whom charges have been
formally completed by a court. Finalised defendants may be acquitted, found guilty, or had their
cases withdrawn or transferred (ABS 2019a).
In 2017–18, across the selected states and territories, more than half of all defendants whose cases
were fnalised in the Magistrates’ courts for selected oﬀences were found to have at least 1 family
and domestic violence oﬀence, except in Western Australia and Tasmania, where family and domestic
violence defendants made up 37% (5,700) and 44% (1,507) of total defendants, respectively. Across
the 3 court levels, the most common oﬀences fnalised were assault and breach of violence orders.
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
2013 –14 2014 –15 2015 –16 2016 –17 2017–18
Number of cases
Magellan cases started Magellan cases finalised
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019 27
Table 3.1: Defendants fnalised for 1 or more family
and domestic violence oﬀence in the Magistrates’
court, states and territories, 2016–17 and 2017–18

2016–17	2017–18
NSW	23,965	24,289
Vic	14,925	15,528
Qld	13,415	14,737
WA	4,932	5,658
Tas	1,379	1,507
NT	3,236	3,361
ACT	669	748

Source: ABS 2019a.
Most defendants of family and domestic violence oﬀences are male
In 2017–18, male defendants accounted for around 4 in 5 defendants in the Magistrates’ courts,
ranging from 82% (19,900) in New South Wales to 86% (2,900) in the Northern Territory. For family
and domestic violence-related sexual assaults, 97% of defendants were male (ABS 2019a).
The number of sexual assault and related oﬀences fnalised in court has increased for
5 consecutive years
The number of sexual assault defendants whose cases were fnalised in court rose for the 5
consecutive years to 2017–18, to 9,900. These defendants include those fnalised for family and
domestic violence-related-sexual assault, and for sexual assault not related to family and domestic
violence. More than one-third (35% or 3,400) of these defendants were fnalised in Higher courts,
most of whom (98% or 3,300) were male.
Just over 2 in 5 (43%, or 3,900) defendants with a principal oﬀence of sexual assault and related
oﬀences fnalised in a Higher or Magistrates court were found guilty (ABS 2019a).
Hospitalisations
Hospitals provide mainstream health services for victims of assault. Just as not all family, domestic
and sexual assaults are reported to the police, not all hospitalised assaults due to these forms of
violence are identifed as such. Victims can be reluctant to report an incident to hospital personnel or
to identify a perpetrator. ‘Assault’ hospitalisations include individuals who were admitted to hospital
with injuries due to physical assault, sexual assault or maltreatment.
National data on individuals presenting to emergency departments due to family, domestic
and sexual violence are not available. See Chapter 8 for more information on AIHW work being
undertaken to improve the national collection and reporting of family, domestic and sexual violence
incidents from emergency departments.
Data on hospitalised injury come from the AIHW National Hospital Morbidity Database and include
hospitalised assault injuries where the episode of admitted patient care ended during the period
from 1 July 2016 to 30 June 2017.
The number of defendants
fnalised in court for family
and domestic violence
oﬀences is rising
Between 2016–17 and 2017–18,
the total number of defendants
whose cases were fnalised in the
Magistrates’ courts for family and
domestic violence oﬀences rose in
all states and territories, ranging
from a 1% rise in New South Wales to
a 15% rise in Western Australia
(Table 3.1) (ABS 2019a).
28 Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019
In 2016–17, there were more than 21,000 hospitalisations of adults aged 15 and older due to assault
injuries. Hospitalisations due to assault injuries by any perpetrator were more common for men
(14,000) than for women (7,400): there were about 4,600 hospitalisations of women and 1,700
hospitalisations of men due to family and domestic violence.
Two in 5 (40%, or 8,500) hospitalised assault injury cases did not specify the relationship between
the perpetrator and the victim. However, the proportion of assault hospitalisations with a specifed
perpetrator recorded has improved, from 42% in 2002–03 when perpetrator coding was introduced,
to 60% in 2016–17 (AIHW analysis of the National Hospital Morbidity Database).
Specifc information about a perpetrator may not be available for a number of reasons, including
information not being reported by, or on behalf of, victims, or information not being recorded in the
patient’s hospital record. The perpetrator of assault was less likely to be specifed for male, compared
with female victims, and for young or middle-aged adults, compared with child and older victims.
Comparisons of the type of perpetrator between sex and age groups, and across time, should be
made with some caution (AIHW 2018d).
Almost 1 in 3 hospitalisations for assault injury are due to family and domestic violence
In 2016–17, almost 1 in 3 (29% or 6,300) of the 21,400 hospitalisations for assault injuries were
a result of family and domestic violence. Of the family and domestic violence-related assault
hospitalisations, the perpetrator was reported as a spouse or domestic partner in 2 in 3 (66%,
or 4,200) assaults, and as another family member in 1 in 3 (33%, or 2,200) assaults.
Assault victims are likely to know the perpetrator
In cases where the perpetrator was specifed, a person known to the victim was reported in about
2 in 3 (65% or 8,400) hospitalisations (Figure 3.6). For female victims, the perpetrator was most likely
a spouse or domestic partner (59%, or 3,600), and for males it was most likely an acquaintance or
friend (21%, or 1,500).
The perpetrator also varied by age of the victim; for children aged 0–14, the perpetrator was most
likely a parent (45%, or 217 cases), while for young people aged 15–24, it was more commonly an
unknown person (16%, or 444 cases) or multiple unknown people (17%, or 468 cases). For victims
aged 65 and over, the most commonly reported perpetrator was a family member other than a
spouse or domestic partner (32%, or 186 cases).
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019 29
Figure 3 6: Assault hospitalisations, adults aged 15 and over, by perpetrator, by sex, 2016–17
Source: AIHW National Hospital Morbidity Database.
Women aged 25–34 are most likely to be hospitalised after assault by a partner
In 2016–17, women had a higher rate of hospitalisation for assault by a spouse or partner than men,
across every age group (Figure 3.7). Rates rose with age for women, peaking at age 25–34 (67 per
100,000), and then fell substantially to 2 per 100,000 for women aged 65 and over. Similarly, the rate
of hospitalisations for assault by a spouse or partner rose with age for men, with the highest rate at
age 35–44 (11 per 100,000), followed by a steady fall.
Older people are more likely to be hospitalised for assault by a family member than by
a spouse or partner
For girls aged 0–14 and women aged over 65 hospitalised for assault injuries, the perpetrator was
most likely a family member other than spouse or domestic partner. The rate of hospitalisations for
assault by other family members rose with age for women, peaking at age 35–44 (15 per 100,000).
The rate of hospitalisations for men peaked at age 15–24 (15 per 100,000) and then gradually fell
with age (Figure 3.7). More women than men were hospitalised for assault by a spouse or domestic
partner, in every age group.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Spouse or
domestic partner
Other family
member
Other known
person
Person unknown
to the victim
Multiple adults
unknown to the
victim
Other specified
person
Unspecified
person
Per cent
Perpetrator
Females Males
30 Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019
Figure 3 7: Rate of hospitalisations for family or domestic violence assaults, by relationship
to perpetrator, by age, by sex, 2016–17
Source: AIHW National Hospital Morbidity Database.
Hospitalisations of women assaulted by a spouse or partner continue to rise
After accounting for changes in the age structure of the population, the rate of hospitalisation for
assault for females, where the perpetrator was reported as a spouse or domestic partner, has
risen at an average of 2.8% per year between 2002–03 and 2016–17, from 27 to 38 hospitalisations
per 100,000 population. For males, the rate was relatively stable between 2002–03 and 2016–17,
increasing from 5.3 to 6.6 hospitalisations per 100,000 population (Figure 3.8).
Males are less likely to specify the person responsible for assault than are females (Figure 3.6).
As a result, there may be an undercount of males hospitalised due to assault from a partner.
Also, the proportion of hospitalisations where a perpetrator was not specifed fell between
2002–03 and 2016–17, from 34% to 19% for females, and from 67% to 51% for males. This should
be considered when interpreting the results. The rise in the proportion of hospitalisations where a
perpetrator was specifed may in part explain the rise in hospitalisations of females due to assault
by a spouse or partner.
Between 2014–15 and 2016–17, the rate of hospitalisations with an unspecifed perpetrator was
stable for both males and females. During this time, the rate of hospitalisations for females for
assault by a spouse or domestic partner rose by 23% from 31 to 38 hospitalisations per 100,000
population. In contrast, the rate for males remained relatively stable, from 6.2 to 6.6 hospitalisation
per 100,000 population (Figure 3.8).
0
20
40
60
80
0–14 15 –24 25–34 35–44 45–54 55–64 65+
Rate per 100,000 Rate per 100,000
Age group
Females
0
20
40
60
80
0–14 15 –24 25–34 35–44 45–54 55–64 65+
Age group
Males
Spouse or domestic partner Other family member Spouse or domestic partner Other family member
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019 31
Figure 3 8: Age-standardised rate of assault hospitalisations where the perpetrator was a
spouse or partner, by sex, 2002–13 to 2016–17
Source: AIHW National Hospital Morbidity Database.
Most partner assault of women involves bodily force
In 2016–17, 2 in 3 (67%, or 2,400) hospitalisations of women for assault by a spouse or domestic
partner involved assault with bodily force, and 1 in 5 involved assault with either a blunt (14%) or
sharp (7%) object. Hospitalisations of men for assault by a spouse or domestic partner were more
likely to involve assault with an object (69%, or 422 hospitalisations) than with bodily force (23%,
or 143 hospitalisations) (Figure 3.9).
Figure 3 9: Assault hospitalisations where perpetrator was spouse or domestic partner,
adults aged 15 and over, by type of assault, by sex, 2016–17
Source: AIHW National Hospital Morbidity Database.
0
10
20
30
40
Rate per 100,000
Financial year
Female
Male
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Bodily force Blunt object Sharp object Strangulation
Per cent
Type of assault
Females Males
32 Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019
Head and/or neck injuries are the most common injuries inﬂicted by a spouse or
domestic partner
In 2016–17, almost 2 in 3 (63%, or 2,200) hospitalisations of women due to assault by a spouse
or domestic partner were for treatment of injuries to the head and/or neck, including 248 (7%) of
hospitalisations due to brain injuries (Figure 3.10). For women of all ages, head and/or neck injuries
were the most common injuries inﬂicted by a partner.
Of hospitalisations of men for assault by a spouse or domestic partner, 41% (252) were due to head
and/or neck injuries, including 27 (4%) brain injuries. Almost 1 in 4 (24%, or 149) were for injury to the
trunk, and 27% (or 163) for injury to the shoulder, arm and/or hand (Figure 3.10).
Figure 3 10: Physical assault hospitalisations where perpetrator was spouse or partner,
adults aged 15 and over, by type of injury, by sex, 2016–17
Source: AIHW National Hospital Morbidity Database.
Partners were the most common perpetrators of assault-related brain injury for women
In 2016–17, for hospitalisations due to assault-related brain injury, a spouse or domestic partner was
the perpetrator for 47% (or 248) women and 2% (or 27) men. See Box 3.3 for further information on
the association between acquired brain injury and family violence.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Head and/or neck Shoulder, arm and/or hand Hip, leg and/or foot Burns
Per cent
Type of injury
Females Males
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019 33
Box 3 3: The prevalence of acquired brain injury among victims and perpetrators of
family violence
A consortium led by Brain Injury Australia examined the prevalence of acquired brain injury
among both victims and perpetrators of family violence. The study estimated the extent of family
violence-related brain injury by analysing Victorian hospital data and supplementing fndings
from the literature.
Acquired brain injury includes traumatic brain injury due to external force applied to the head,
and non-traumatic brain injury, such as from stroke, lack of oxygen or strangulation, or poisoning.
The study analysed Victorian hospital data of family violence-related injuries, from July 2006
to June 2016, and included major trauma, hospital admissions and emergency department
presentations. Family violence was found to be a signifcant cause of brain injury. Of the victims
of family violence attending Victorian hospitals over the 10-year period:
• 40% had sustained a brain injury (6,409 of the 16,296 victims)
• 31% were children under the age of 15 (5,007 children) and of these, 25% had sustained a
brain injury (1,252 children)
• 14% of major trauma cases with a serious brain injury died during their hospital stay,
compared with 2.9% of cases without a serious brain injury
• brain injury accounted for 14 of the 17 family violence-related deaths.
The consortium also looked at international studies on brain injury among perpetrators of family
violence. Although there were few studies on this, the available evidence suggested that rates of
brain injury were twice as high among perpetrators as among their counterparts in the general
population.
Further research is required to understand the interplay between brain injury and the other
factors known to inﬂuence the perpetration of family violence.
Source: Brain Injury Australia et al. 2018.
Pregnant women assaulted by a partner are more likely to experience injury to their
trunk than other women
In 2016–17, the victim was pregnant in 7% (or 236) of hospitalisations of women for physical assault
by a spouse or domestic partner. More than half (52% or 122) of these pregnant women were
admitted for injuries to their head and/or neck, and 38% (89) were hospitalised for injuries to their
trunk (Figure 3.11). Trunk injuries were more common among pregnant women than among women
who were not pregnant (13%).
34 Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019
Figure 3 11: Physical assault hospitalisations where perpetrator was spouse or partner,
females aged 15 and over, by type of injury, by pregnancy status, 2016–17
Source: AIHW National Hospital Morbidity Database.
Most partner assault occurs in the home
For hospitalisations due to assault by a spouse or domestic partner where location was specifed,
the assault occurred in a home for 86% (1,500) women, and 93% (or 282) men. Information about
the location of assault was missing in about half (50%) of all hospitalisations due to assault by a
spouse or domestic partner.
For hospitalisations of women for injuries due to sexual assault by any perpetrator almost 1 in 2
(62%, or 63) reported ‘home’ as the location of assault, where location was specifed.
Income support
16,500 people received crisis payments on grounds of experiencing family and
domestic violence
The Australian Government helps people aﬀected by family and domestic violence by providing
information, resources and referrals, such as social work services and fnancial assistance. A one-oﬀ
crisis payment is available to income-support recipients who are experiencing severe fnancial hardship
and who are in extreme circumstances, including leaving a violent relationship. The one-oﬀ crisis
payment is equal to 1 week’s pay at the person’s existing income-support payment rate.
In 2017–18, 16,500 people received a crisis payment on the grounds of family and domestic violence
(14,900 females and 1,600 males). Payments were most commonly provided to people aged 25–34
(37%, or 6,100) and 35–44 (29%, or 4,800). About 17% (2,800) payments were made to people aged
under 25, and 16% (2,700) were made to people aged 45 and older.
Almost 9 in 10 (89%, or 14,700) people who received a crisis payment on the grounds of domestic
violence had left their home. Since 2012–13, the number of recipients receiving crisis payments has
remained relatively stable (Figure 3.12).
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Head and/or neck Trunk Shoulder, arm
and/or hand
Hip, leg and/or foot Burns
Per cent
Type of injury
Pregnant Not pregnant
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019 35
Figure 3 12: Recipients who received Centrelink crisis payments on the grounds of
experiencing family and domestic violence, by housing status, by sex, 2012–13 to 2017–18
Source: DSS unpublished.
Family Tax Beneft
The Family Tax Beneft is a payment administered by the Australian Government to assist families
with the cost of raising children. Some single parents may receive an additional beneft. Usually,
if a person cares for a child from a previous relationship, they need to take reasonable steps to
obtain child support from their previous partner in order to receive the additional beneft. However,
individuals may apply for an exemption from this requirement on the grounds that they fear family
or domestic violence.
As at 28 September 2018, about 106,000 parents, caring for 149,000 children, were exempt from
the requirement to obtain child support. Of these children, 46% (69,000) were exempt due to fear
of violence (Department of Social Services unpublished).
Specialist homelessness services
Victims of family and domestic violence are at a higher risk of homelessness, and family and domestic
violence is the main reason women and children leave their homes. For this reason, women and
children aﬀected by family and domestic violence are a national homelessness priority group in the
National Housing and Homelessness Agreement (Council on Federal Financial Relations 2018), which
came into eﬀect on 1 July 2018.
The Specialist Homelessness Services Collection, administered by the AIHW, contains data on how
specialist homelessness services (SHS) respond to those nominating family and domestic violence as a
reason for seeking assistance. The collection includes information about clients, their housing situations
at presentation, the assistance they requested, the services provided, and the outcomes of support.
SHS agencies may help both the victims and the perpetrators of family and domestic violence.
0
2,000
4,000
6,000
8,000
10,000
12,000
14,000
16,000
No. of victims
Year
Females
Victim left home Victim remained in home
0
2,000
4,000
6,000
8,000
10,000
12,000
14,000
16,000
No. of victims
Year
Males
Victim left home Victim remained in home
36 Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019
SHS agencies collect data on the people who apply for and receive support. Some people come into
contact with SHS agencies on multiple occasions, so changes in their situations over time appear
in the data. The AIHW has analysed data about people who presented to SHS agencies in 2017–18
(AIHW 2019d).
More than 121,000 people were assisted by specialist homelessness services due to
family or domestic violence
In 2017–18, 42% (121,000) clients assisted by SHS agencies had experienced family or domestic
violence, up from 115,000 clients in 2016–17.
Of the 121,000 clients assisted by SHS agencies who have experienced family or
domestic violence in 2017–18:

Characteristic	Number	%
Female	94,100	78%
Male	27,000	22%
Single parents	46,500	38%*
Homeless at the time of seeking assistance	47,200	39%
New clients	58,000	48%
Returning clients	63,200	52%
Indigenous	26,300	22%
Needed specifc assistance with family and domestic violence	91,500	76%

* Note that family type was unknown for 19% of clients who had experienced family or domestic violence. When calculated as a
proportion of clients where family type was known, 47% were single parents.
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019 37
The number of people assisted by specialist homelessness services continues to rise
In 2017–18, 76 in 10,000 females were assisted by specialist homelessness services for family and
domestic violence, 32% more than in 2013–14 (57 in 10,000). For males, this rate rose in 2017–18
by 40%, to 22 per 10,000 males, compared with 16 per 10,000 males in 2013–14 (Figure 3.13)
(AIHW 2018c, 2019d).
Figure 3 13: Rate of clients seeking specialist homelessness services as a result of family or
domestic violence, by sex, 2011–12 to 2017–18
Sources: AIHW 2018c; 2019d.
Young children and women are the most likely to seek specialist homelessness services
as a result of family or domestic violence
Just over 1 in 5 clients seeking specialist homelessness services as a result of family or domestic
violence were aged 0–9 (22% or over 26,500), and nearly 41,700 (34%) of clients were aged under 18.
Half (50%, or 13,500) male clients who were experiencing family or domestic violence were aged 0 to
9, and a further 15% (4,200) were aged 10 to 14. One in 5 (20%, or 24,500) clients were aged 25–34
and were the largest proportion of adult service users; most of these clients (94%) were female
(Figure 3.14) (AIHW 2019d).
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
2011–12 2012 –13 2013 –14 2014 –15 2015 –16 2016 –17 2017–18
Rate per 10,000
Financial year
Females Males
38 Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019
Figure 3 14: Clients seeking specialist homelessness services as a result of family or
domestic violence, by age, by sex, 2017–18
Source: AIHW 2019d.
1 in 3 family and domestic violence clients have a mental health issue and/or problematic
substance use
Of the 94,700 clients aged over 10 who were experiencing family or domestic violence:
• 8% (7,900) reported both a mental health condition and problematic drug and/or alcohol use
• 26% (24,300) reported only a current mental health issue
• 2.8% (2,600) reported only problematic drug and/or alcohol use (AIHW 2019d).
Specialist homelessness services help almost half of all clients gain stable housing
For clients experiencing domestic and family violence whose support ended in 2017–18:
• almost 1 in 2 (46% or 10,500) who were homeless at the start of support were assisted into stable
housing at the end of support, with the majority into private or other housing
• 9 in 10 (89% or about 30,600 clients) who were at risk of homelessness received help to maintain
their tenancy.
These data include only those clients whose support periods had closed and who did not have
ongoing support at the end of the 2017–18 reporting period. It is important to note that a proportion
of these clients may seek assistance from SHS agencies again in the future.
Family and relationship services
Relationships Australia provide a range of services to assist people experiencing violence or abuse in
their relationships. Counselling and other specialised support services are available to those seeking
ways to improve their own safety, or to overcome the impact of trauma, or reduce their use of violence
in their relationships. Programs are also available for those who have used anger, violence or abuse in
their interpersonal relationships and want to fnd new ways of relating that do not harm others.
0
5,000
10,000
15,000
20,000
25,000
0–9 10 –14 15 –17 18 –24 25 –34 35 –44 45 –54 55 –64 65+
Number of clients
Age group
Females Males
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019 39
Relationships Australia provided the AIHW with extracts of available de-identifed data for 2017–18
for selected states and territories.
In 2017–18, around 21,000 people sought assistance from Relationships Australia for matters relating
to family violence. These clients comprised almost one-third of all clients seeking services through
Relationships Australia in selected states and territories. Just over half of the family violence clients
were female (53%, or 11,200) (Table 3.2) (Relationships Australia unpublished).
Table 3.2: Proportion and number of clients aﬀected by family violence seeking services
through Relationships Australia, selected states and territories, by sex, 2017–18

Female	Male
Per cent	Number	Per cent	Number
NSW	38.2	4,793	47.90	5,412
Vic	46.4	6,099	52.40	5,119
WA	14.1	1,312	14.60	1,074
SA	39.4	3,103	31.80	1,812
Tas	28.7	1,168	27.00	953
ACT	19.6	790	20.70	600

Note: Data are collected diﬀerently across states and territories. Comparisons should be made with caution.
Source: Relationships Australia unpublished.
Technology assisted services
Telephone and online communications can provide information and advice relating to family,
domestic and sexual violence to both victim-survivors and perpetrators. A selection of non-government
organisations provided de-identifed data about their services for this report. These data are collated
from a wide range of organisations and cover varying time periods. However, overall, the data show
that thousands of Australians are accessing telephone helplines, websites and mobile applications
every year to seek support for family, domestic and sexual violence.
1800RESPECT
1800RESPECT is the national sexual assault, domestic and family violence counselling service. It is
a free and confdential service staﬀed by professional counsellors 24 hours a day, 7 days a week,
to assist people experiencing, or at risk of experiencing violence (1800RESPECT 2016).
The service answered about 143,000 calls between its inception in August 2016 and June 2018:
57,700 in 2016–17 and 85,100 in 2017–18. Over the 2 years, 19,700 online counselling contacts were
answered: 6,300 in 2016–17 and 10,900 in 2017–18 (DSS unpublished).
40 Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019
Ask Izzy
Ask Izzy is a mobile application and website that connects people who are homeless, or at risk of
homelessness, with housing and support services in their area. Users select the type of support they
require, such as housing, food, health, and various types of advice. They have the option of indicating
factors that have contributed to their situation, which could include experiences of family and
domestic violence (InfoXchange unpublished).
De-identifed data are presented here from website users and represent searches for support rather
than unique clients (InfoXchange unpublished).
In 2017–18, more than 21,400 users searched Ask Izzy for housing support. Of this group, almost
3 in 10 website users (28%, or almost 6,000) indicated that they were experiencing family violence.
Website users were given the option of providing additional information about their situation.
For people seeking support for homelessness due to family and domestic violence:
• almost 8 in 10 (78%, or 4,700) were female, 15% (900) were male and just over 4% (260) reported
their gender as trans and gender diverse
• females aged 27–39 accounted for 41% of female website users (more than 1,900 users),
whereas the most commonly recorded age group for males was 18–26 (36%, or 300)
• just under 1 in 10 people (9%, or 550) were aged under 18. The age profle of males was younger
than that of females: 16% (150) male website users were under 18 compared with 8% (350) females
• more than 1 in 10 (12%, or 700) identifed as Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
• almost 1 in 4 (24%, or 1,400) identifed as being a family with children
• more than 1 in 5 (21%, or 1,300) reported mental or emotional difculties (InfoXchange unpublished).
In 2017–18, many people who searched Ask Izzy for a directory of local support services reported
experiencing family and domestic violence:
• More than 5,500 people searched for support and counselling services. Of these, 1 in 5 (21%,
or 1,164) selected ‘scared in my relationship’ when asked what issue they were dealing with.
• More than 2,300 people searched for legal support services. Of these users, 1 in 8 (12%, or 282)
reported that they were seeking legal advice for domestic and family violence issues (InfoXchange
unpublished).
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019 41
Mobile applications
Mobile phone applications can provide a portable and accessible source of information and support
for people experiencing family, domestic and sexual violence.
DAISY App
Daisy is a free app developed by 1800RESPECT to connect people experiencing family, domestic and
sexual violence to services in their local area. The app includes information on state and territory-based
services as well as non-government organisations. The service websites accessed by the user from
within the app, are not recorded on the device’s browser history (1800RESPECT 2016).
Penda
Penda provides Australian women with fnancial information and referrals for domestic violence.
It provides information on fnancial safety planning, crisis payments, and emergency housing.
In 2017–18, Penda was downloaded over 5,600 times (Women’s Legal Service Queensland
unpublished).
Re-focus
Re-focus provides Queensland women with legal information regarding separation from an intimate
partner involving domestic violence. In 2017–18, Re-focus was downloaded 613 times (Women’s Legal
Service Queensland unpublished).
Family, domestic and sexual violence workforce
There are limited national data on the workforce for specialist family, domestic and sexual violence
services. The University of New South Wales Social Policy Research Centre (SPRC) National Survey
of Workers in the Domestic, Family and Sexual Violence Sectors (the National Survey of Workers)
provides some information about those working in services used by people aﬀected by violence
(see Box 3.4) (Cortis et al. 2018).
The National Survey of Workers includes workforce characteristics, workforce strengths, gaps, skill
levels and skill-development needs. The survey was designed to produce fndings that can be used
to build the capacity of the workforce and improve responses to those aﬀected by violence
(Cortis et al. 2018).
42 Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019
Box 3 4: National Survey of Workers in the Domestic, Family and Sexual Violence Sectors
The National Survey of Workers in the Domestic, Family and Sexual Violence Sectors was led by
the University of New South Wales Social Policy Research Centre for the Department of Social
Services in 2018. The study involved a survey of workers, and a separate survey of service
leaders. The surveys were developed through consultations with those involved in the sector,
including peak bodies, employers, unions and training specialists.
The survey of workers captured the experiences of those working in services used by people
aﬀected by violence, including information about confdence in areas of practice, and job
satisfaction. The survey of service leaders captured service-level information about staﬀ
numbers, perceptions of capacity, and workforce development priorities and strategies.
As there is no comprehensive list of relevant services across Australia, a sampling frame
was developed to help identify relevant service providers, based on funding provided by the
Department of Social Services and the Attorney-General’s Department. In addition, lists of
services funded by the states and territories were provided by the Department of Social Services.
Services included (but were not limited to):
• services funded under the Australian Government Families and Children Activity
• Australian Government-funded Legal Assistance services
• Australian Government-funded services under the Settlement Grants program
• Australian Government-funded services under the Financial Wellbeing and Capability Activity
• services funded under the specialist homelessness service program
• services funded under specialist perpetrator programs.
The service survey was distributed to 1,000 services and completed for 320 services. The worker
survey was completed by 1,200 workers. As there is no national data set providing a profle of
relevant services which could be used to determine population weights, no weights were applied.
The survey is not intended to be representative of the entire workforce. Instead it sheds some
light on the shared experiences of workers in the family, domestic and sexual violence space.
Source: Cortis et al. 2018.
Most workers in the family, domestic and sexual violence sectors are female
Four in 5 (83%) of workers surveyed were female. One in 5 (20%, or 228) workers had caring
responsibilities, 1 in 12 (8.0%, or 92) identifed as LGBTIQ+, and 1 in 13 (7.5%, or 86) spoke a language
other than English at home. One in 20 (4.9%, or 56) were from Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
backgrounds, and 1 in 25 (3.7%, or 43) identifed as having a disability. Most employees (61%) were
working full time (Cortis et al. 2018).
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019 43
Workers are generally confdent in identifying family, domestic and sexual violence
In general, workers were confdent they could identify signs of abuse. However, fewer were confdent
they could identify fnancial or sexual abuse, compared with physical or emotional abuse. Almost 9 in
10 (89%) felt able to work creatively to meet clients’ needs, and 2 in 3 (66%) felt able to spend enough
time with each client.
Many workers felt they needed additional training to support specifc client groups such as
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people; LGBTIQ people; asylum seekers; people experiencing
homelessness; and the perpetrators of violence. Overall, the most common areas where workers
felt training was needed were in risk assessment, therapeutic approaches, legal training, general
counselling, screening, and supervision training. Those working frequently with perpetrators listed
priority areas for skill development as working with clients resistant to intervention, promoting
behaviour change, and evaluating participants’ progress.
Resourcing was highlighted as an issue of concern. Only 2 in 5 respondents (38%) felt their service
had enough staﬀ to get work done, and about 1 in 5 (19%) disagreed with the statement ‘people who
need our services can get them’ (Cortis et al. 2018).
Family, domestic and sexual violence service workers are exposed to bullying,
harassment and violence
According to the survey, workers had high exposure to bullying, harassment, violence and threats.
Around half of workers reported experiencing bullying, harassment, violence or threats from a client
in the last 12 months, with this proportion increasing to 66% for workers who had daily contact with
perpetrators. In terms of ranking overall job quality, almost half (48%) of the workers reported feeling
emotionally drained from work, and a similar proportion (45%) said they felt under pressure to work
harder (Cortis et al. 2018).
44 Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019
4 Impacts and outcomes
of family, domestic and
sexual violence
Key fndings
• Women who experience childhood abuse or household dysfunction suﬀer worse health
eﬀects in adulthood.
• Women who experience domestic violence during pregnancy are 3 times as likely to suﬀer
depression.
• For women aged 15 and over, mental health conditions were the largest contributor to the
disease burden due to domestic violence; these conditions included depressive disorders
(43%), followed by anxiety disorders (30%) and suicide and self-inﬂicted injuries (19%).
• Between 2014–15 and 2015–16, there were 218 victims of domestic homicide.
• In 2017, more than 1 in 3 murders recorded by police were related to family and domestic
violence.
Family, domestic and sexual violence has a range of consequences for victims, perpetrators, families,
workplaces, the community and the economy. Many of these consequences were explored in Family,
domestic and sexual violence in Australia 2018.
The impacts of family, domestic and sexual violence can be serious and long-lasting, aﬀecting an
individual’s health, wellbeing, education, relationships and housing outcomes. It is a leading cause of
homelessness—and the costs to the community are substantial, estimated to be at least $22 billion
in 2015–16 (KPMG 2016).
This chapter updates the key fndings from the 2018 report, and draws on a broader range of data
sources to explore the impacts and outcomes of family, domestic and sexual violence, including
homicide, burden of disease and some of the long-term health outcomes for women and children.
Long-term health impacts and outcomes
Evidence of the long-term health impacts and outcomes of family, domestic and sexual violence can
be obtained from longitudinal surveys that follow people over time. Data are presented in this report
from the Australian Longitudinal Study on Women’s Health (ALSWH) and the Maternal Health Study.
While a new longitudinal study on men’s health and wellbeing (Ten to Men) commenced in 2011, no
data are yet available for similar analysis about impacts and outcomes for men experiencing family
and domestic violence.
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019 45
Burden of disease studies can also be used to examine the long-term health impacts and outcomes
of family, domestic and sexual violence. These studies measure the combined impact on a population
living with illness and injury and dying prematurely. Internationally recognised methods are used to
assess the health impact of diseases or risk factors across a population.
Australian Longitudinal Study on Women’s Health
The Australian Longitudinal Study on Women’s Health (ALSWH) is a longitudinal survey of more than
57,000 women that began in 1996 (see https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/domestic-violence/familydomestic-sexual-violence-australia-2019/contents/data-sources-monitoring-family-domestic-sexualviolence for details). The ALSWH explores factors that inﬂuence health throughout the
lifespan among women who are broadly representative of the entire Australian population.
The study began with 3 cohorts of women born in 1973–78, 1946–51 or 1921–26; in 2012, a fourth
cohort was added of women born in 1989–95. Participants were randomly selected from the
Medicare database, except that women from rural and remote areas were sampled at twice the
rate of women in urban areas, to ensure numbers were large enough for statistical comparison.
Women in the study are sent surveys by mail every 3 years.
Women who experience childhood abuse or household dysfunction suﬀer worse health
eﬀects in adulthood
Women born 1973–78 who experienced childhood abuse or household dysfunction had poorer
general and mental health than women who had not had these experiences (Loxton et al. 2018).
In addition, women who had experienced childhood sexual abuse were more likely to have poor
general health, and to experience depression and bodily pain than those who had not experienced
sexual abuse during childhood (Coles et al. 2018).
Women who had experienced childhood abuse (including psychological, sexual and physical abuse)
or household dysfunction during childhood (such as witnessing intimate partner violence) had higher
long-term primary, allied, and specialist health-care costs, compared with women who had not had
these experiences during childhood (Loxton et al. 2018).
Women who experience domestic violence are twice as likely to be diagnosed with
cervical cancer
Data from the ALSWH also showed that, when compared with women who had not experienced
domestic violence, women who had experienced domestic violence were:
• more likely to be diagnosed with a sexually transmitted infection, including HPV, with 23%
of women aged 22–27 in 2017 who had experienced domestic violence reporting a sexually
transmitted infection, compared with 11% of women who had not experienced domestic violence
(Loxton et al. unpublished)
• less likely to be screened for cervical cancer, with 75% of women who were aged 45–50 in 1996
and 53–58 in 2004 who had experienced domestic violence reporting adequate cervical screening,
compared with 81% of women who had not experienced domestic violence (Loxton et al. 2009).
46 Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019
Among more than 14,000 women who were aged 45–50 in 1996, women who had been diagnosed
with cervical cancer were twice as likely to have experienced domestic violence, compared with
women who had not been diagnosed with cervical cancer (29% versus 15%, respectively)
(Loxton et al. 2006).
Maternal Health Study
Data are available from the Maternal Health Study to investigate the medium-term impacts of
partner violence on maternal health (Box 4.1). Further information from this study on the impacts
of family violence on child emotional and behavioural development is provided in Chapter 6.
Box 4.1: What is the Maternal Health Study?
The Maternal Health Study is an ongoing study that investigates the health and wellbeing of
more than 1,500 frst-time mothers and their frst-born children. Women were recruited in
early pregnancy from 6 Melbourne metropolitan hospitals between 2003 and 2005. Data have
been collected on a range of physical and psychological health problems, including depression,
anxiety, domestic violence, and child health and developmental outcomes. The mean age of
women in the study when their frst baby was born was 31 years (age range 19–50).
The study incorporated a validated measure of domestic violence in follow-up questionnaires at
1, 4 and 10 years after their child was born. Although the obstetric characteristics of the women
in the study were largely representative of frst-time mothers, women aged under 25 years and
women born overseas or of non-English speaking background were under-represented.
Source: Brown et al. 2015.
Women experiencing domestic violence during pregnancy are 3 times as likely to
suﬀer depression
According to the Maternal Health Study, almost 2 in 5 (39%) of women who experienced physical
and emotional violence from an intimate partner in the frst 12 months after giving birth reported
depressive symptoms, compared with 12% of women who did not experience violence. Women
who were afraid of an intimate partner were also more likely to experience other physical and
psychological health problems, such as vaginal bleeding during pregnancy; urinary and faecal
incontinence; and anxiety symptoms (Brown et al. 2015).
Over half the mothers reporting intimate partner abuse in the frst year after giving birth also
reported that they had experienced violence again 4 years after giving birth (Gartland et al. 2014).
Burden of disease
Burden of disease studies measure the combined impact on a population from living with illness and
injury and dying prematurely. These studies use internationally recognised methods to quantify and
compare the health impact of risk factors or diseases with one another, across time and between
populations. The summary measure ‘disability-adjusted life years’ (or DALY) measures the years of
healthy life lost from illness and death. One DALY is 1 year of ‘healthy life’ lost due to illness and/or
death—the more DALYs associated with a disease or injury, the greater the burden of that disease.
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019 47
The Australian Burden of Disease Study 2015 estimated the amount of burden that could have
been avoided if no women aged 15 and over in Australia in 2015 were exposed to intimate partner
violence. In estimating this burden, 6 diseases were causally linked to exposure to partner violence:
• depressive disorders
• anxiety disorders
• early pregnancy loss
• homicide and violence (injuries due to violence)
• suicide and self-inﬂicted injuries
• alcohol use disorders.
The burden due to partner violence was estimated only in women, as evidence in the literature to
inform the causally linked diseases and the amount of increased risk (relative risk) was only available
for women (Ayre et al. 2016; GBD 2016 Risk Factor Collaborators 2017).
Partner violence is a major health risk factor for women aged 25–44
In 2015, for women aged 15 and over, partner violence contributed to:
• 223 deaths (0.3% of all deaths)
• 1.6% of the burden of disease and injury (35,078 DALY).
Mental health conditions were the largest contributor to the burden due to physical/sexual violence
or emotional abuse by a partner, with depressive disorders making up the greatest proportion (43%),
followed by anxiety disorders (30%) and suicide and self-inﬂicted injuries (19%). Figure 4.1 shows the
reduction of burden of disease in 2015 if all women had not experienced partner violence.
Partner violence was also ranked (by DALY) as the 3rd leading risk factor for women aged 25–44,
behind Child abuse and neglect during childhood, and Illicit drug use. In 2011, partner violence was
ranked as the greatest health risk factor for women aged 25–44. This change in ranking from 2011
to 2015 reﬂects updated methodology for estimating the burden attributable to the risk factors
Child abuse and neglect, and Illicit drug use. As a result of these revised inputs for the burden of
disease study for 2015, Child abuse and neglect during childhood and Illicit drug use are now the top 2
health risk factors for women aged 25–44 (AIHW forthcoming 2019).
48 Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019
Figure 4 1: Burden of disease due to partner violence, women aged 15 and over, 2015
Source: AIHW forthcoming 2019.
The burden due to partner violence remains steady over time
The total burden attributable to partner violence was 20% higher for females in 2015 than in 2003
(35,078 DALY in 2015 compared with 29,232 DALY in 2003). When the impact of the increasing age
and size of the population is taken into account, the rate of burden remained steady during this
period (3 DALY per 1,000 women in both years, rate ratio 1.0) (AIHW forthcoming 2019).
The attributable burden (DALY number) was higher in most age groups in 2015 compared with 2003,
with the greatest diﬀerences observed for ages 45–54 (Figure 4.2). The age-specifc attributable DALY
rates were lower for persons aged under 45 and higher for persons aged 55 or more in 2015 than in
2003 (AIHW forthcoming 2019).
Changes over time may be due to changes in exposure to partner violence or in the burden from
linked diseases. Changes in burden from linked diseases may be inﬂuenced by other risk factors,
changes to treatment or health interventions. The other inputs used to calculate the burden
attributable to partner violence (such as relative risk or the size of the association between the
risk factor and the linked disease) were the same in each year.
If no women had experienced partner violence, then in 2015 the disease burden would
have been reduced by:
41% less homicide and violence
18% less early pregnancy loss
19% less suicide and self-inﬂicted injuries
19% less depressive disorders
12% less anxiety disorders
4% less alcohol use disorders
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019 49
Figure 4.2: Number and rates of burden (DALY per 1,000 women) attributable to partner
violence, by age, 2003 and 2015
Source: AIHW forthcoming 2019.
Homicide
The impact of family, domestic and sexual violence can be fatal. Many homicide victims are killed by
a current or previous intimate partner and women are over represented in this category of homicide.
These deaths rarely occur without warning and in many instances there have been identifable risk
factors and repeated episodes of abuse prior to the homicide (ADFVDRN 2018).
Diﬀerences in deaths data
This report includes homicide data from 3 main sources: Australian Institute of Criminology (AIC)
National Homicide Monitoring Program (NHMP); ABS Recorded Crime—Victims; and the Australian
Domestic and Family Violence Death Review Network (ADFVDRN). The scope, collection methods,
and criteria for identifying a family or domestic violence homicide diﬀer between data sources.
These collections are not directly comparable, but complement each other as statistical sources.
AIC National Homicide Monitoring Program
The NHMP includes information on homicides from police records and coronial records. The NHMP
undergoes a quality control process that involves crosschecking information in police oﬀence records
with other data sources, such as coronial reports, court documents and media reports. This report
uses the NHMP for 2014–15 and 2015–16 to present the latest family or domestic violence homicide
prevalence data.
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
10
0
2,000
4,000
6,000
8,000
10,000
12,000
15-24 25-34 35-44 45-54 55-64 65-74 75-84 85+
DALY rate
DALY (number) (per 1,000 women)
Age group (years)
2003 (DALY count) 2015 (DALY count)
2003 (DALY rate) 2015 (DALY rate)
50 Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019
ABS Recorded Crime—Victims
The ABS Recorded Crime—Victims collection includes information on homicides and related oﬀences
(including murder, attempted murder and manslaughter). Data are derived from police records and
compiled according to the National Crime Recording Standard to maximise consistency between
states and territories (ABS 2018b). This report uses the ABS Recorded Crime data for 2017 to present
further information on homicides and attempted homicides to complement the prevalence data.
Australian Domestic and Family Violence Death Review Network
The ADFVDRN is a network of state and territory domestic and family violence death review teams.
Their frst report, released in 2018, looked at instances between July 2010 and June 2014 where a
person was killed by a current or previous intimate partner after ‘an identifable history of domestic
violence between the homicide victim and the homicide oﬀender’. Coronial records were analysed
from all states and territories. The scope of the ADFVDRN report is narrower than the NHMP and the
ABS Recorded Crime—Victims collection.
The ADFVDRN completed an in-depth analysis of events leading up to a homicide to inform possible
intervention strategies. This report presents these fndings to report on events leading up to a
domestic and family violence death.
AIC National Homicide Monitoring Program
1 woman is killed every 9 days and 1 man is killed every 29 days by a partner
Between 2014–15 and 2015–16, the NHMP recorded 218 domestic homicide victims from 198
domestic homicide incidents (see Box 4.1 for defnitions). Of the 218 domestic homicide victims,
there were:
• 107 victims of intimate partner homicide
• 45 victims of flicide
• 28 victims of parricide
• 13 victims of siblicide
• 25 victims of other family homicide (AIC unpublished).
Over half (59%, or 129) domestic homicide victims were female. Almost 2 in 3 (64%, or 82) female
victims and over 1 in 4 (28%, or 25) male victims were killed by an intimate partner (Figure 4.3).
More than 3 in 4 (75%, or 155) perpetrators of domestic homicide were male (AIC unpublished).
The reported number of domestic homicide victims from 2014–15 to 2015–16 is slightly higher than
the previous reporting period (213 victims were killed in 200 incidents from 2012–13 to 2013–14).
However, the number of people killed by an intimate partner was slightly lower (99 women and 27
men were killed by an intimate partner from 2014–15 to 2015–16) (Bryant and Bricknell 2017).
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019 51
Box 4.2: National Homicide Monitoring Program defnition of domestic homicide
Domestic homicide incidents are those involving the death of a family member or other person
in a domestic relationship. These incidents can include:
intimate partner homicide—where the victim and oﬀender have a current or former intimate
relationship, including same-sex and extramarital relationships
flicide—where a custodial or non-custodial parent (or step-parent) kills a child
(including infanticide, which is defned as the killing of a child aged under 1)
parricide—where a child kills a custodial or non-custodial parent or step-parent
siblicide—where 1 sibling kills another
other family homicide—where the victim and oﬀender are related, but not in the ways already
described (for example, they are cousins, aunts/uncles, grandparents and so forth).
Figure 4 3: Domestic homicide victims, by type of homicide, by sex of victim, 2014–15 to
2015–16 (per cent)
Source: AIC unpublished.
ABS Recorded Crime—Victims
More than 1 in 3 murders recorded by police are related to family and domestic violence
The ABS Recorded Crime—Victims, Australia 2017 publication presented data for victims of family
and domestic violence homicide and related oﬀences (including murder and attempted murder).
In 2017, there were 126 victims of recorded family and domestic violence homicide and related
oﬀences, which included 75 murders and 41 attempted murders (ABS 2018b).
Australian Domestic and Family Violence Death Review Network
The ADFVDRN identifed 152 adult domestic violence homicides in Australia, over the 4-year period
between July 2010 and June 2014, where a person was killed by a current or previous intimate
partner after an identifable history of domestic violence (ADFVDRN 2018).
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Intimate partner
homicide
Filicide Parricide Siblicide Other family
incidents
Per cent
Type of Homicide
Females Males
52 Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019
Most domestic violence homicide victims are female
Over the 4-year period, 4 in 5 (80%, or 121) of the reviewed domestic violence homicides were
perpetrated by a male against a female. Almost 1 in 5 (18%, or 28) of the homicides involved a female
killing a current or previous male partner, and the rest were perpetrated by men against men. Of the
121 reviewed homicides where a male killed their female partner, the male was the primary abuser in
93% (112) cases. Of the 28 reviewed homicides where a female killed their male partner, the female
was identifed as the primary abuser in 2 cases (Figure 4.4) (ADFVDRN 2018).
Figure 4.4: Intimate partner homicides with an identifable history of domestic violence,
July 2010–June 2014
Source: ADFVDRN 2018.
Insufcent
information to
determine male’s
victim/abuser status
6
Insufcent
information to
determine female’s
victim/abuser status
4
Male was primary
victim
0
Female was primary
victim
17
Male was both victim
and abuser
3
Female was both
victim and abuser
5
Male was primary
abuser
112
Female was primary
abuser
2
Male killed female
121
Female killed male
28
Male killed male
3
IPV homicides
152
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019 53
1 in 4 female victims held a current domestic violence order when murdered
One in 4 (24%, or 29) women who were murdered held a current Domestic Violence Order against
their male perpetrator and 14% (4) men who were murdered held a current Domestic Violence Order
against their female perpetrator. One in 4 (25%, or 7) women who killed a male intimate partner,
held a current Domestic Violence Order taken out against that man (ADFVDRN 2018).
Most intimate partner homicides occur in the home
Between 2010–11 and 2013–14, almost half (44%, or 65) of the reviewed heterosexual domestic
violence homicides occurred in the residence shared by the victim and perpetrator. Women were
more likely than men to be killed in public or in their partner’s residence. Men were more likely to
be killed in their own home (Figure 4.5) (ADFVDRN 2018).
Figure 4 5: Intimate partner homicides by location of homicide, by sex of victim and
perpetrator, July 2010 – June 2014
Source: ADFVDRN 2018.
Female victims are more likely to be killed during a period of intended or actual separation
One in 3 (36%, or 44) women who were killed by their male partner were separated at the time,
and 19% (23) were in a relationship where at least 1 person had expressed their intention to
separate. Less than half (45%, or 54) were in an ongoing relationship at the time of their death.
In contrast, male victims killed by a female partner were most likely to be killed during an ongoing
relationship (61%, or 17 men). Six (21%) of men were in a relationship where at least 1 person had
expressed their intention to separate, and 5 (18%) were separated (Figure 4.3) (ADFVDRN 2018).
0
10
20
30
40
50
Shared
residence
Homicide
victim
residence
Public/open
place
Homicide
offender
residence
Other
residence
Workplace
Per cent
Location of homicide
Female killed by male partner Male killed by female partner
54 Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019
Table 4 1: Employment status of the victim at the
time of homicide

Female	Male
%	%
Employment status
Employed	36.4	51.6
Unemployed	44.6	38.7
Disability Pension	5.0	3.2
Retired	5.8	0.0
Student	5.0	0.0
Unknown	3.3	6.5

Source: ADFVDRN 2018.
Emotional abuse is the most common form of abuse leading up to domestic
violence homicide
Over the 4-year period from July 2010 to June 2014, emotional abuse was the most common form of
abuse in 4 in 5 (80%, or 84) cases where a man killed a female intimate partner. This was followed by
physical abuse (76%, or 80 cases) and controlling social behaviours (61%, or 64 cases). These fndings
also illustrate that intimate partner abuse (as for all family and domestic abuse) often involves
multiple, coexisting abuse types.
Where a male killed a female intimate partner:
• stalking had been reported either during the relationship or after it had ended in 1 in 3 (36%,
or 38) cases
• sexual violence was reported in 12% (13) cases
• there were 107 child survivors (ADFVDRN 2018). For more information on children exposed to
family and domestic violence, see Chapter 6.
There is limited information on previous abuse in cases where a female killed a male partner,
because the ADFVDRN identifed only 2 cases where the female perpetrator was the primary abuser.
Half of all homicide perpetrators were under the inﬂuence of alcohol
More than half of the people who killed an intimate partner were aﬀected by alcohol, other drugs,
or both. The rates of alcohol and drug use were similar among male and female perpetrators
(Figure 4.6).
Almost half of all homicide victims
were unemployed
Almost half of all the reviewed female
homicide victims (45%) and just under
2 in 5 male homicide victims (39%)
were unemployed at the time of their
homicide (Table 4.1) (ADFVDRN 2018).
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019 55
Figure 4.6: Intimate partner homicides, by perpetrator’s use of alcohol and other
substances at the time of homicide, by sex of victim and perpetrator, July 2010 to June 2014
Source: ADFVDRN 2018.
5 0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
Alcohol only Alcohol and other
substances
Substances only No alcohol or
substance
Per cent
Perpetrator’s use of alcohol and other substances
Female killed by male partner Male killed by female partner
56 Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019
5 Attitudes and behaviours
relating to family,
domestic and sexual
violence
Key fndings
• 8 in 10 (81%) of Australians agree that controlling by denying a partner money is a form of
family and domestic violence—up from 70% in 2013.
• 2 in 5 (42%) of Australians agree it is common for sexual assault accusations to be used as a
way of getting back at men.
• 1 in 2 (53%) of women and 1 in 4 (25%) of men have experienced sexual harassment since the
age of 15.
• 2 in 5 (39%) of women and 1 in 4 (26%) of men have experienced sexual harassment at work in
the last 5 years.
• 1 in 6 (17%) of women and 1 in 15 (6.5%) of men have experienced stalking since the age of 15.
The causes of family violence are complex and include gender inequality and community attitudes
towards women. Factors such as intergenerational abuse and trauma, exposure to violence as a
child, social and economic exclusion, fnancial pressures, drug and alcohol misuse and mental
illness can also be associated with family violence. These factors can combine in complex ways to
inﬂuence the risk of an individual perpetrating family violence or becoming a victim of such violence
(State of Victoria 2016).
The factors contributing to and inﬂuencing the likelihood of a person becoming a perpetrator or a
victim of family, domestic and sexual violence can be grouped into 4 categories:
• Individual: personal history such as childhood abuse; attitudes supportive of violence; alcohol or
drug use; adherence to traditional gender roles; or education
• Relationships: interpersonal relationships with peers, intimate partners or family members such
as social support networks; family conﬂict; or having violent peers
• Community: experiences in schools, workplaces and neighbourhoods such as workplace polices
on sexual harassment or accessibility of support services
• Societal: structural and cultural inﬂuences such as government policies, religious or cultural beliefs,
gender or other inequalities, or social and cultural norms (Quadara and Wall 2012).
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019 57
Data on many of the contextual factors listed above are not available at a national level. Australia
does have robust population-level survey data available on attitudes to, and perceptions of, violence
against women via the National Community Attitudes towards Violence against Women Survey
(NCAS). Equivalent data on attitudes to men and other victims are not available at a national level.
The latest NCAS results are presented in this chapter, along with new data on sexual harassment
and stalking.
Community attitudes towards violence against women
Social attitudes and norms shape the context in which violence occurs. The 2017 NCAS presents the
latest national data on the attitudes to, and perceptions of, violence against women (see Box 5.1).
Findings from the 2017 NCAS for young people, Indigenous Australians and those from non-English
speaking backgrounds will be released in late 2019 and are not included in this report.
Box 5 1: National Community Attitudes towards Violence against Women Survey
The NCAS is the main national survey that measures community knowledge and attitudes
towards violence against women, gender roles and relationships, and responses to violence.
It also tracks changes in knowledge and attitudes over time. There have been 4 national surveys
conducted to date. The frst 3—1995, 2009, 2013—were led by VicHealth and the 2017 survey
was conducted by Australia’s National Research Organisation for Women’s Safety (ANROWS).
ANROWS redeveloped the questionnaire for 2017, but retained many questions from the
previous surveys to measure changes over time. Many of the questions in the survey use
the term domestic violence because this is the term used in the 1995 survey. The NCAS
encompasses 4 forms of violence: intimate partner violence, sexual assault, sexual harassment,
and stalking. When referring to 2 or more forms of violence, the term violence against women
is used.
The NCAS collected information from a representative sample of 17,500 Australians aged
16 and over. For more details, see data source and supporting materials online at
www.aihw.gov.au/reports/domestic-violence/family-domestic-sexual-violence-in-australia-2019/
contents/data-sources-for-monitoring-family-domestic-and-sexual-violence.
What the NCAS survey tells us
Australians have a growing awareness of the diﬀerent types of behaviours and acts that constitute
violence against women, especially non-physical behaviours such as verbal abuse and intimidation.
However, although the 2017 NCAS identifed improvements in many community attitudes and
increases in knowledge relating to violence against women, some Australians believe perpetrators of
family, domestic and sexual violence can be excused in certain circumstances, and that many women
exaggerate gender inequality.
58 Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019
Most Australians do not endorse violence against women
The 2017 NCAS showed that most Australians had an accurate knowledge of what constituted
violence against women and did not endorse this violence.
A person’s knowledge of family, domestic and sexual violence can inﬂuence their attitudes and
enable those aﬀected to better identify and respond to the violence. In 2017, more Australians
were able to recognise violence against women than in previous surveys (Table 5.1). In particular,
a larger proportion of people agreed that non-physical forms of violence could be considered forms
of intimate partner violence, including:
• preventing a partner from seeing friends or family (91% agreed)
• controlling by denying a partner money (81% agreed)
• harassment by repeated emails and/or text messages (90% agreed) (Table 5.1)
(Webster et al. 2018).
Most Australians would act if they saw abuse or disrespect
Encouraging people to take action in response to witnessing abuse or disrespect is a positive step
in helping to prevent violence in the community (Webster et al. 2018). The 2017 NCAS reported that
most (98%) of people would be ‘bothered if they saw a male friend verbally abusing a women he was
in a relationship with’, 70% would act to do something about it, and 69% thought they would have the
support of their friends if they did something about it (Webster et al. 2018).
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019 59
Table 5 1: Community knowledge of violence against women, 1995–2017

1995	2009	2013	2017	Change(a)
Certain behaviours are a form of partner violence/ violence against women (% agree)
Slaps/pushes to cause harm and fear	97	97	97	97(b)	
Forces partner to have sex	94	97	96	97	—
Tries to scare/control by threatening to hurt others	n/a	98	97	98	—
Throws/smashes objects to frighten/threaten	91	97	96	96	—
Repeatedly criticises to make partner feel bad/useless	71	85	85	92	
Controls social life by preventing partner from seeing family and friends	74	83	85	91	
Controls by denying partner money	62	71	70	81	
Stalks by repeatedly following/watching at home or work	n/a	90	89	92	
Repeatedly keeps track of location, calls or activities through mobile phone or other devices, without consent	n/a	n/a	n/a	84	—
Harasses by repeated emails/text messages	n/a	85	85	90	
Prevalence of violence against women (% agree)
Violence against women is common	n/a	74	68	72	
Understanding of sexual violence (% agree)
If a woman doesn’t physically resist—even if protesting verbally—then it isn’t really rape	n/a	n/a	10	7	
Many allegations of sexual assault made by women are false	n/a	n/a	n/a	16	—
It is a criminal oﬀence for a man to have sex with his wife without her consent	n/a	n/a	n/a	81	—
Women are more likely to be raped by someone they know than by a stranger	76	70	64	64	—
Knowledge of resources
If I needed to get outside advice or support for someone about a domestic violence issue, I would know where to go	n/a	62	57	60	

(a)  or  indicates a statistically signifcant change between 2013 and 2017.
— indicates no statistically signifcant change between 2013 and 2017.
(b) There is a signifcant diﬀerence of less than 1% between 2013 and 2017. This is not apparent in the table, as all numbers have
been rounded.
Source: Webster et al. 2018.
60 Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019
Attitudes that support violence are associated with lack of support for gender equality
The strongest predictors of attitudes that support violence against woman are people having a low
level of support for gender equality and low level of understanding of the behaviours that constitute
violence against women. Holding prejudicial attitudes towards people based on other attributes,
and having a high level of support for violence in general are also strongly associated with attitudinal
support for violence against women (Webster et al. 2018).
Attitudes towards violence against women are also associated with some demographic factors, such as:
• age (being 65 years and over)
• educational level (not having a tertiary education)
• gender composition of occupation (working in a male-dominated occupation)
• English language profciency (poor profciency)
• country of birth and length of time in Australia (being born overseas) (Webster et al. 2018).
There is some evidence that family, domestic and sexual violence can be prevented by tackling the
underlying factors—such as gender inequality, poor and disrespectful attitudes towards women,
and violence-supportive attitudes—through education and early intervention programs (SecretaryGeneral of the United Nations 2006; Our Watch et al. 2015). However, like many areas in social policy,
it is difcult to obtain robust evidence on the causal nature of family, domestic and sexual violence.
Many Australians believe that gender inequality is exaggerated
Gender inequality and attitudes supporting gender inequality provide the social conditions in which
family, domestic and sexual violence is more likely to occur (Webster et al. 2018). While most Australians
surveyed agreed that women could play a range of roles regardless of gender, 2 in 5 (40%) believed that
many women exaggerated how unequally they were treated in Australia (Webster et al. 2018).
Most Australians recognise that most perpetrators of violence are male
Many people were aware that intimate partner violence was often perpetrated by males—however,
this proportion has fallen over time. In 2017, around two-thirds (64%) of people recognised that men
were often the main perpetrators of domestic violence, down from 71% in 2013. Most people (81%)
recognised that women were more likely than men to suﬀer physical harm from domestic violence;
however, this proportion had also fallen since 2013, when it was 86% (Webster et al. 2018).
1 in 5 Australians believe that domestic violence is just a normal reaction to day-to-day
stress and frustration
Attitudes relating to family, domestic and sexual violence can contribute to violence indirectly,
by inﬂuencing social norms of what is acceptable behaviour.
In 2017:
• 1 in 5 (21%) of people believed that violence results from a woman making a man ‘so angry that
he hits her when he didn’t mean to’
• 1 in 5 (20%) believed that ‘a lot of what is called domestic violence is really just a normal reaction
to day-to-day stress and frustration’
• nearly 1 in 6 (14%) of Australians believe that ‘women who ﬂirt all the time are somewhat to blame
if their partner gets jealous and hits them’ (Webster et al. 2018).
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019 61
Individuals who hold attitudes excusing the perpetrator and holding women responsible for family,
domestic and sexual violence are not necessarily prone to violence, or more likely to openly condone
violence. These attitudes however, when expressed, can contribute to a culture that excuses
perpetrators, disregards consent, minimises the impact of violence against women and mistrusts
women’s report of violence (Webster et al. 2018).
Fewer people agree that intimate partner violence is a private, family matter
In 2017, 12% of people agreed that intimate partner violence is a private, family matter. This is less
than the 17% who agreed with this in 2013 (Webster et al. 2018). However, as many as one-third of
Australians also hold attitudes that minimise the consequences of intimate partner violence:
• 1 in 3 (32%) of people believed that a female victim who does not leave an abusive partner is partly
responsible for the abuse continuing
• 1 in 6 (16%) of people did not believe that ‘it is as hard as people say it is’ for women to leave an
abusive relationship (Webster et al. 2018).
2 in 5 people agree that women use accusations of sexual assault to get back at men
The 2017 NCAS investigated whether Australians would justify non-consensual sex. The survey found
that a proportion of Australians were unclear about what constituted consent and where the line was
drawn between consensual sex and coercion. Nearly 11% of Australians believed that women were
lying about sexual assault if they did not report it straight away:
• 2 in 5 (42%) agreed that it was common for sexual assault accusations to be used as a way of
getting back at men
• 1 in 3 (33%) believed that rape resulted from men not being able to control their need for sex
• 1 in 8 (13%) were more likely to justify non-consensual sex if the woman initiated intimacy in a
scenario were a couple had just met, and 1 in 7 (15%) in a scenario where the couple were married
(Webster et al. 2018).
Sexual harassment
Sexual harassment occurs when a person has experienced or been subjected to behaviours that
make them feel uncomfortable and were oﬀensive due to their sexual nature (ABS 2017b). It includes
a range of behaviours aimed at demeaning an individual and exercising power and control over
them. Men can be victims of this behaviour, but women are more commonly so, and men are more
commonly the perpetrators.
Sexual harassment can be seen as part of the continuum of sexual violence, underpinned by the
same social and cultural attitudes. Interventions that challenge these cultural and social norms may
help to reduce and prevent violent behaviours (WHO 2010). Since the release of the Family, domestic
and sexual violence in Australia 2018, there has been considerable media attention about sexual
harassment (see Box 5.2), stalking and technology-facilitated abuse.
62 Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019
Box 5.2: What is #MeToo?
The #MeToo movement was founded by activist Tarana Burke in 2006 to support girls and women
who had experienced sexual violence. The movement became a global phenomenon in 2017
when celebrities popularised the phrase as a hashtag (a label for content on social media sites)
when discussing sexual violence and harassment in the entertainment industry. Large numbers of
women and men around the world felt empowered to share their stories of sexual violence.
The movement allowed women, and some men, to have the confdence to share their
experiences of sexual harassment—whereas previously they had been reluctant to come
forward, out of fear of retaliation or other adverse consequences. The #MeToo hashtag has
increased public awareness of the prevalence of sexual violence in the workplace in ways not
previously realised (Khomami 2017).
This section presents previously unpublished data from the 2016 PSS on experiences, perceptions
and forms of sexual harassment in the general population. It also presents new fndings from
the fourth wave of the Australian Human Rights Commission’s (AHRC) National Workplace Sexual
Harassment Survey (AHRC 2018). Sexual harassment defnitions are outlined in Box 5.3.
Box 5 3: What is sexual harassment?
The defnitions for sexual harassment vary slightly between the 2016 ABS Personal Safety
Survey and the AHRC’s 2018 National Workplace Sexual Harassment Survey.
ABS 2016 Personal Safety Survey
In the ABS PSS, ‘sexual harassment’ includes indecent phone calls; indecent texts, emails or
posts; indecent exposure; inappropriate comments about body or sex life; unwanted touching,
grabbing, kissing or fondling; distributing or posting pictures or videos of the person, that were
sexual in nature, without their consent; and being exposed to pictures, videos, or materials
which were sexual in nature and that the person did not wish to see.
AHRC 2018 National Survey on Sexual Harassment in Australian Workplaces
The AHRC survey measured the prevalence of sexual harassment in 2 ways: by providing
respondents with a simplifed legal defnition and asking whether they have ever been sexually
harassed; and by providing respondents with a list of behaviours likely to constitute sexual
harassment and asking them whether they had experienced these behaviours. The list captures
a broad spectrum of behaviours, ranging from inappropriate staring and leering, to actual
or attempted rape or sexual assault. Survey respondents were asked whether they had ever
experienced these behaviours in a way that was unwelcome.
The survey has a sample size of 10,300 people aged 15 and over—a substantially larger sample
size than previous surveys—obtained by a quota sample, to ensure that participants were
representative of the Australian population in terms of age, sex and where they lived.
The sample was not selected to reﬂect the Australian workforce, either by occupation,
employment status, or industry, but is analysed by industry type. Findings from the survey
will inform the AHRC’s frst national inquiry into sexual harassment in Australian workplaces.
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019 63
Inappropriate comments and unwanted touching are the most common forms of
sexual harassment
The 2016 PSS showed that sexual harassment was experienced by around 1 in 2 (53% or 5 million)
women and 1 in 4 (25% or 2.2 million) men in their lifetime (Box 5.3). Of those who experienced
sexual harassment:
• about 3 in 5 (62%, or over 3 million) women and 1 in 2 (46%, or over 1 million) men had been
subjected to inappropriate comments about their body or sex life
• more than half of women (57%, or 2.8 million) and men (51%, or 1.1 million) experienced
unwanted touching, grabbing, kissing or fondling (ABS 2017c) (Figure 5.1).
Figure 5 1: Women and men who experienced sexual harassment from any person,
by type of sexual harassment, 2016
Note: Components are not able to be added together to produce a total. Where a person has experienced more than 1 type of
sexual harassment, they are counted separately for each type of behaviour they experienced.
Source: ABS 2017c.
Sexual harassment in the workplace
1 in 3 people are sexually harassed at work
Sexual harassment in the workplace is associated with a range of negative outcomes, including lower
job satisfaction, lower organisational commitment and poorer physical and mental health (Willness et
al. 2007). According to the AHRC 2018 National Survey, 1 in 3 (33%) of people had experienced sexual
harassment at work in the 5 years preceding the survey—almost 2 in 5 (39%) of women and 1 in 4
(26%) of men. Of those who experienced sexual harassment, 7 in 10 (69%) of women and 6 in 10 (58%)
of men experienced more than 1 form of sexual harassment in the previous 5 years (AHRC 2018).
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Indecent
phone call
Indecent text,
email or post
Indecent
exposure
Inappropriate
comments
about body or
sex life
Unwanted
touching,
grabbing,
kissing or
fondling
Distributed or
posted
pictures or
videos without
consent
Exposed to
picture or
videos
Per cent
Type of sexual harassment experienced
Women Men
64 Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019
Sexually oﬀensive comments and jokes are the most frequent forms of workplace
sexual harassment
Sexually oﬀensive suggestive comments or jokes were the most common form of sexual harassment
in the workplace. One in 4 (25%) of women and more than 1 in 10 (13%) of men experienced these
behaviours in the 5 years preceding the survey. Intrusive questions about an individual’s private
life or physical appearance was the second most common type of workplace sexual harassment,
and were experienced by nearly 1 in 5 (19%) of women and 1 in 10 (10%) of men. These sexual
harassment behaviours in the workplace are similar to those reported in the PSS about lifetime
sexual harassment (Figure 5.1) (AHRC 2018).
Workplace sexual harassment is rarely reported
One in 5 (20%) of people who were harassed in the workplace said sexual harassment behaviours
were ‘common’ in their workplace, and 1 in 3 (36%) said it occurred ‘sometimes’. Women were more
likely than men to say sexual harassment was ‘common’ (21% and 17%, respectively) or occurred
‘sometimes’ in their workplace (39% and 33%, respectively). Two in 5 (41%) of victims also said that
they knew of someone else in their workplace who had been sexually harassed the same way.
Less than 1 in 5 (17%) of people who had been sexually harassed went on to lodge a formal report
or complaint. Of those who did not report the incident, almost half (49%) said it was because they
thought people would think they were overreacting (AHRC 2018). Similarly, it was uncommon for
people who had heard or witnessed the sexual harassment of a co-worker to take action. Although
more than one-third (37%) of people had witnessed or heard about the sexual harassment of
somebody else in their workplace, only 1 in 3 (35%) of bystanders took action to prevent or reduce
the harm of the harassment (AHRC 2018).
Most workplace sexual harassment is perpetrated by men
According to the AHRC survey, the majority of workplace sexual harassment is perpetrated by men.
More than 9 in 10 (93%) of female victims and around 6 in 10 (58%) of male victims were harassed by
1 or more male perpetrators. For women, the perpetrator was most likely to be a client or customer
(22%), whereas for men, the perpetrator was most likely to be a co-worker at the same level (37%).
Almost 2 in 3 (64%) of incidents involved a single perpetrator, with women (71%) more likely to have
been harassed by a single perpetrator than men (54%) (AHRC 2018).
Stalking
People who experience stalking can undergo a range of negative psychological, physical, occupational
and general lifestyle eﬀects. The experience and impact of stalking on a victim can vary, ranging
from mild annoyance to extreme fear and insecurity. The impact of stalking can be inﬂuenced by the
victim’s previous experiences, current circumstances, knowledge of the stalker and ability to seek
help (Noﬀsinger 2015).
Information on stalking is available from the 2016 PSS. The defnitions used in the PSS are outlined
in Box 5.4.
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019 65
Box 5 4: What is stalking?
Stalking involves various unwanted behaviours—such as following or making unwanted
contact—that cause fear or distress. To be classifed as ‘stalking’ in the ABS PSS, more than 1
type of behaviour had to occur, or the same type of behaviour occur on more than 1 occasion.
The PSS only asks respondents about selected stalking behaviours, including:
• loitered or hung around outside person’s home, workplace, place of leisure or social activities
• followed or watched them in person or used electronic tracking device (for example,
GPS tracking system, computer spyware)
• maintained unwanted contact with them by phone, postal mail, email, text messages or
social media websites
• posted oﬀensive or unwanted messages, images or personal information on the internet
about them
• impersonated them online to damage their reputation
• hacked or accessed their email, social media or other online account without their consent
to follow or track them
• gave or left objects where they could be found that were oﬀensive or disturbing
• interfered with or damaged any of their property.
Source: ABS 2017c.
Women are more likely to experience stalking
The 2016 PSS showed that:
• 1 in 6 (17%, or 1.6 million) women and about 1 in 15 (6.5%, or 587,000) men aged 18 and over
had experienced stalking (see Box 5.4) since the age of 15
• of women who were stalked, 94% (1.5 million) were stalked by a male
• men were equally likely to be stalked by a male or by a female (Figure 5.2) (ABS 2017c).
66 Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019
Figure 5 2: Proportion of women and men who had experienced stalking, by sex of
perpetrator, 2016
Source: ABS 2017c.
Women and men are likely to experience stalking from someone they know
For women who had experienced stalking since the age of 15, the most recent stalking episode by
a male was perpetrated by:
• a known person for 3 in 4 (75%, or 1,116,000) women; for nearly 1 in 3 (30%, or 448,000) women,
the perpetrator was a current or previous partner
• a stranger for 1 in 4 (25%, or 365,000) women (Figure 5.4) (ABS 2017c).
For men who had experienced stalking since the age of 15, the most recent stalking episode by
a female was perpetrated by a known person for more than 9 in 10 (95%, or 286,000) men; for 4 in
10 (41%, or 124,000) men, the perpetrator was a current or previous partner (however, these data
should be interpreted with caution due to small numbers).
For men, the perpetrator of the most recent stalking episode by a male was about equally likely
to be a stranger (151,000 men) as to be a known person (170,000 men) (ABS 2017c).
5 0
10
15
20
Experienced stalking by a male Experienced stalking by a female
Per cent
Sex of perpetrator
Women Men
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019 67
Figure 5 3: Women who experienced stalking since the age of 15, by perpetrator of the
most recent incident by a male, 2016
Source: ABS 2017c.
Loitering or following is the most common stalking behaviour experienced by women
from current or previous intimate partners
For women whose current or previous partner had recently stalked them:
• 2 in 3 (68%, or 450,000) had experienced loitering by the perpetrator in locations such as the home,
workplace, school, education facility, places of leisure or at social activities
• 2 in 5 (44%, or 290,000) women were followed or watched, either in person or electronically
• 1 in 5 (20%, or 130,000) women were abused via the internet, including being tracked or
impersonated or having their intimate images shared without permission (ABS 2018a).
Men whose most recent incident of stalking by a female was perpetrated by a current or previous
intimate partner experienced similar patterns of behaviour. About half (52%, or 112,000) had
experienced loitering and almost 4 in 10 (40%, or 84,100) were followed or watched in person or
electronically (Figure 5.4) (ABS 2018a).
The sharing of intimate images without permission can also be referred to as image-based abuse,
and further information is available from the Ofce of the eSafety Commissioner (Box 5.5).
0 10 20 30 40
Cohabiting partner (current or previous)
Boyfriend/date (current or previous)
Relative or in-law
Friend or housemate
Acquaintance or neighbour
Employer/ manager/ supervisor/ co-worker
Other known person
Stranger
Per cent
Perpetrator
68 Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019
Figure 5 4: Women and men whose most recent incident of stalking since the age of 15 was
perpetrated by a current or previous intimate partner, by behaviours experienced, 2016
Note: Components are not able to be added together to produce a total. Where a person has experienced more than 1 type of
stalking behaviour, they are counted separately for each type they experienced.
Source: ABS 2018a.
Stalking is often not seen as a crime
Despite variations in legal defnitions, stalking is a criminal oﬀence in every state and territory in
Australia. However, fewer than 1 in 3 (31%, or 364,000) women who experienced stalking by a male
perceived the most recent episode as a crime at the time. Almost half (48%, or 558,000) women who
experienced stalking by a male perceived it as wrong but not a crime, while 14% (157,000) perceived
it a something that ‘just happens’ (ABS 2017c).
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Followed or watched
in person or using an
electronic tracking
device
Tracked,
impersonated them,
or posted offensive
content online
Interfered with
property or left
objects that were
offensive or
disturbing
Per cent
Behaviours experienced
Women stalked by a male
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Loitered or hung
around home or
other place
Followed or watched
in person or using an
electronic tracking
device
Maintained
unwanted contact
Tracked,
impersonated them,
or posted offensive
content online
Interfered with
property or left
objects that were
offensive or
disturbing
Per cent
Behaviours experienced
Men stalked by a female
Maintained
unwanted contact
Loitered or hung
around home or
other place
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019 69
Fewer than 1 in 4 (23%, or 58,500) men who experienced stalking by a female perceived the most
recent episode as a crime, while 46% (117,000) perceived it as wrong but not a crime, and 27%
(68,300) perceived it as something that ‘just happens’ (ABS 2017c).
Box 5 5: Online reporting of image-based abuse
The Ofce of the eSafety Commissioner provides support services for people experiencing
image-based abuse. Image-based abuse is the sharing of intimate, nude or sexual images
without the consent of the person depicted (for example, in emails or on websites).
The website of the Ofce of the eSafety Commissioner invites victims of image-based abuse to
submit reports online. These reports are then used to seek the removal of abuse images from
social media and websites.
Between October 2017, when the online reporting portal was introduced, and June 2018, the
Ofce of the eSafety Commissioner received 259 reports of image-based abuse. Victims were
predominantly female (79%). One in 5 (22%) of victims were under the age of 18 at the time
they reported.
From September 2018, the Ofce of the eSafety Commissioner has had powers to use civil
penalties, such as fnes, against the perpetrators of image-based abuse.
Source: Ofce of the eSafety Commissioner 2018.
70 Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019
6 Family, domestic and
sexual violence in
vulnerable populations
Key fndings
• In 2016–17, 611 children aged 0–14 were hospitalised for assault. Where the perpetrator was
specifed, 217 children were abused by a parent, and 71 by another family member.
• In 2017, police recorded more than 11,000 female victims of sexual assault aged 15–34,
compared with 3,800 female victims aged 35 and over.
• In 2017–18, more than 10,900 calls were made to elder abuse helplines across Australia
(excluding the Northern Territory). Most abuse reported was directly attributable to family
and domestic violence.
• Around 1 in 3 (32%, or 929,000) women with disability have experienced emotional abuse from
a current or previous partner since the age of 15, compared with around 1 in 5 (19%, or 1.2
million) women without disability.
• 1 in 6 (16% or 1.5 million) women and 1 in 9 (11% or 992,000) men had experienced physical
and/or sexual abuse before the age of 15.
Understanding how family, domestic and sexual violence is experienced by diﬀerent population
groups helps to inform and support the development of appropriate services, education and
prevention programs (ABS 2013a). The ways in which diﬀerent people experience family, domestic
and sexual violence, and the options they have to access services that meet their needs, can be
shaped by multiple intersecting cultural, social and physical factors (National Council to Reduce
Violence against Women and their Children 2009).
The chapter provides information on 8 vulnerable population groups:
• children
• young women
• older Australians
• people with disabilities
• people from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds
• lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, intersex and queer people
• people in rural and remote Australia
• socioeconomically disadvantaged people.
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people are another important vulnerable group who experience
higher rates of family violence, and this is looked at in detail in Chapter 7.
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019 71
Children
For children and adolescents experiencing family, domestic and sexual violence, the impacts can
be serious and long-lasting, aﬀecting their health, wellbeing, education, relationships and housing
outcomes (ANROWS 2018). Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia 2018 highlighted the need
for more comprehensive data on children’s experiences—including prevalence, severity, frequency
and outcomes—of these forms of violence.
This section draws together new and updated data on prevalence, children’s hospitalisations and
child protection notifcations. It explores the key fndings from an AIHW data linkage study that
looked at the experiences of children aged 10–17 who used both child protection and youth justice
services. It also presents key fndings from 2 longitudinal studies (the Longitudinal Study of Australian
Children, and the Maternal Health Study) and the latest burden of disease study.
Prevalence
Children are often exposed to violence
It is difcult to obtain robust data on children’s experiences of family, domestic and sexual violence.
Due to the sensitive nature of this subject, most large-scale population surveys focus on adults.
While administrative data collections—such as police, hospital and child protection data—can provide
some insights, these data sources are likely to underestimate the true extent of the violence in the
community.
A new 5-year study, led by the Queensland University of Technology and funded by the National
Health and Medical Research Council, will help to provide future insights into child maltreatment by
examining the health outcomes and burden of disease caused by child maltreatment (Queensland
University of Technology 2019).
The 2016 PSS reported that, of those who had experienced violence from a previous partner and had
children in their care when the violence occurred, 418,000 (68%) of women and 92,200 (60%) of men
reported that the children had seen or heard the violence.
About 1 in 6 (16%, or 1.5 million) women and 1 in 9 (11%, or 992,000) men had experienced physical
and/or sexual abuse before the age of 15. Parents were the most common perpetrators of physical
abuse before the age of 15. Around 45% of adults experienced physical abuse before the age of 15
by a father or stepfather, and 24% by a mother or stepmother. Where mothers or stepmothers were
identifed as the perpetrator of abuse, the victims were more likely to be their daughters (66%) than
their sons (35%) (ABS 2018a).
Of those adults who experienced sexual abuse before the age of 15, nearly 8 in 10 (79%) were abused
by a relative, friend, acquaintance or neighbour. A minority of adults who experienced sexual abuse
before the age of 15 were abused by a stranger (11%) (ABS 2018a).
72 Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019
Of the 25,500 women who participated in the Australian Longitudinal Study on Women’s Health:
• 15–25% experienced psychological abuse as a child
• 8–11% experienced physical abuse as a child
• 13–16% experienced sexual abuse as a child
• 7–10% witnessed their mother being abused
• 2–5% witnessed their father being abused (Loxton et al. unpublished).
Children and young people as perpetrators
‘Adolescent family violence’ is a term used to describe violence perpetrated by young people against
family members, including physical, emotional, fnancial, and sexual abuse. It includes a range of
behaviours used to control, coerce and threaten family members. Victims can include parents and
carers, siblings, and intimate partners (Fitz-Gibbon et al. 2018).
Although there is limited national data on the prevalence of adolescent family violence, recent
research projects highlight that adolescent males more commonly use violence against family
members than adolescent females, and that mothers are more likely to be victimised
(Fitz-Gibbon et al. 2018). See Box 6.1 for further information on adolescent family violence.
Box 6 1: Adolescent family violence
The NSW Bureau of Crime Statistics and Research analysed reports of family violence made to
police in New South Wales in 2014 (Freeman 2018). Perpetrators under the age of 18 accounted
for 7% of all people reported to police for family violence assaults during this period. These
adolescent perpetrators were:
• more likely to be male—2 in 3 (65%) of oﬀenders were male
• 15 years old, on average. Females were slightly younger than males.
More than half (55%) of the adolescent perpetrators had been the subject of police reports for
other oﬀences in the 2 years before being reported for a family violence assault. Almost 1 in 4
(23%) of adolescent perpetrators were reported for a further family violence oﬀence within 12
months of the frst report.
Family violence assaults account for a substantial and increasing proportion of overall assaults
by adolescents reported to New South Wales police—in 2017, one-third (1,055) of all juvenile
assaults were domestic violence-related. The recorded rate of juvenile family violence assaults
has risen considerably over the past decade, from 155 per 100,000 in 2008 to 196 per 100,000
in 2017.
Source: Freeman 2018.
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019 73
Police responses
In 2017, police recorded a large number of family and domestic violence-related sexual assaults
against children, with 1 in 6 (17%, or 1,400) children aged 0–9 and 1 in 5 (20%, or 1,700) aged 10–14.
For females, the largest proportion of family and domestic violence-related sexual assault victims
were aged 15–19 (22%, or 1,500); for males, the largest proportion of victims were aged 0–9 (38%,
or 436) (ABS 2018b).
Hospitalisation of children
In 2016–17, there were 611 hospitalisations of children aged 0–14 for injuries due to abuse (which
includes assault, maltreatment and neglect), including 156 Indigenous children. For the 481 (79%) of
hospitalisations where the perpetrator was specifed, nearly 1 in 2 (45%, or 217) children were abused
by a parent, and 1 in 8 (13%, or 71) by another family member. For Indigenous children, about 2 in 3
(68%, or 83) were abused by a parent or family member.
Perpetrators most often use bodily force
Of the 131 hospitalisations of girls for abuse injuries due to family violence, 44 (34%) were
abused with bodily force, 11 (8%) with an object, and 14 (11%) were hospitalised for neglect and
abandonment by family.
Of the 157 hospitalisations of boys for abuse injuries due to family violence, 42 (27%) were
abused with bodily force, 13 (8%) with an object, and 18 (11%) were hospitalised for neglect and
abandonment by family (Figure 6.1).
Figure 6 1: Hospitalisations for abuse by a family member, children aged 0–14, by method
of abuse, by sex, 2016–17
Source: AIHW National Hospital Morbidity Database.
5 0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Bodily force Object Neglect and abandonment
Per cent
Method of abuse
Girls Boys
74 Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019
1 in 3 girls and 1 in 2 boys suﬀer injuries to the head and/or neck
One in 3 (33%, or 43) hospitalisations of girls due to family violence were for treatment of injury to
the head and/or neck, including 5 girls with brain injury. One in 3 (33%, or 43) girls were treated for
burns, and 16% (20) for injury to the shoulder, arm or hand.
One in 2 (50%, or 78) hospitalisations of boys due to family violence were for treatment of injury to
the head and/or neck, including 18 boys with brain injury. About 18% (29) boys were hospitalised
for burns and 16% (25) for injury to the shoulder, arm or hand (Figure 6.2).
Figure 6 2: Hospitalisations for abuse by a family member, children aged 0–14, by body
region injured, by sex, 2016–17
Source: AIHW National Hospital Morbidity Database.
Child protection services
In Australia, states and territories are responsible for providing child protection services to anyone
aged under 18 who has been—or is at risk of—being abused, neglected or otherwise harmed,
or whose parents are unable to provide adequate care and protection.
Child protection data are recorded in the Child Protection National Minimum Data Set, which contains
information on children and young people who received child protection services and (where abuse
or neglect is substantiated), the type of abuse or neglect. Many cases of child abuse and neglect
are not disclosed to authorities and these data are likely to under-report how many children in the
community are abused or neglected (AIFS 2019).
Physical, sexual and emotional abuse that occurs within the family home, or is perpetrated by family
members, is in the scope of this publication. Although neglect of children may not involve family or
sexual violence, it has been included in the child protection services data reported, because children
are often neglected when family, domestic or sexual violence occurs in the home (Queensland Centre
for Domestic and Family Violence Research 2018).
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Head and/or neck Trunk Shoulder, arm
and/or hand
Hip, leg and/or
foot
Burns
Per cent
Injury
Girls Boys
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019 75
159,000 children are receiving child protection services
In 2017–18, 1 in 35 (3%, or 159,000) children received child protection services. Where recorded,
72% (74,800) children who received child protection services were repeat clients (AIHW 2019b).
Over the past 6 years, the rate of children receiving child protection services rose from 26 per
1,000 children in 2012–13 to 31 per 1,000 in 2016–17 and fell to 29 per 1,000 in 2017–18 (AIHW
2017, 2019b). Changes in the rate of children receiving child protection services may be due to a
combination of changes in the underlying rate of child abuse; in the rate of reporting abuse; or in
the reporting practices of states and territories. For example, the recent decline in 2017–18 is in
part reﬂected by NSW’s introduction of a more restrictive defnition of child protection investigations.
Infants are most likely to receive child protection services
In 2017–18, infants aged under 1 were most likely, and adolescents aged 15 to 17 least likely,
to receive child protection services (38 and 21 per 1,000, respectively) (AIHW 2019b).
55,300 children are in out-of-home care
Children may receive a mix of child protection services, including investigations, care and protection
orders and out-of-home care. If an investigation provides sufcient reason to believe that a child has
been—or is at risk of—being abused, neglected or harmed, it will lead to a substantiation.
In 2017–18:
• 105,000 children were the subject of an investigation
• 67,200 children were on a care and protection order
• 55,300 children were in out-of-home care (AIHW 2019b).
All states and territories, except New South Wales, provided information on substantiated cases of
abuse or neglect. New South Wales implemented a new client management system in 2017–18 and
has provided limited data (which excluded substantiations), but is working to improve quality and
completeness for future reporting. Historically, New South Wales has recorded about one-third of
child protection substantiations.
Abuse or neglect substantiated for 32,000 children and the rate is rising
Nearly half (49%, or 32,000) children with a fnalised investigation had their case substantiated in
2017–18. A ‘substantiation of notifcation’ refers to child protection notifcations made to relevant
authorities which were investigated; the investigation was fnalised; and it was concluded there was
reasonable cause to believe that the child had been, was being, or was likely to be, abused, neglected
or otherwise harmed. This included 16,000 girls and 15,700 boys (AIHW 2019b). In 2017–18, 9 per
1,000 children were the subject of substantiations. This has increased by 18% from 7 per 1,000
children in 2013–14 (Figure 6.3).
76 Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019
Figure 6 3: Children aged under 18 who were the subject of substantiations (excluding
New South Wales), rate per 1,000 children, 2013–14 to 2017–18.
Note: NSW has implemented a new client management system in 2017–18 and has provided limited data (which excluded
substantiations). NSW is working to improve quality and completeness of data for future reporting.
Source: AIHW 2019b.
In nearly 6 in 10 (59%, or 18,800) substantiated cases, children had suﬀered emotional abuse.
Physical abuse was identifed in 15% (4,700) cases; sexual abuse in 9% (2,800); and neglect in 17% (5,500).
The pattern of abuse types experienced was similar for girls and boys (Figure 6.4) (AIHW 2019b).
Figure 6 4: Number of children who were the subjects of substantiations, by abuse type,
by sex, 2017–18
Note: NSW has implemented a new client management system in 2017–18 and has provided limited data which exclude
substantiations. NSW is working to improve quality and completeness of data for future reporting.
Source: AIHW 2019b.
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
2013 –14 2014–15 2015 –16 2016 –17 2017–18
Substantiations per 1,000 children
Year
0
2,000
4,000
6,000
8,000
10,000
Physical abuse Sexual abuse Emotional abuse Neglect
No. of children
Girls Boys
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019 77
Specialist homelessness services
More young children are being assisted by specialist homelessness services due to
family violence
In 2017–18, of the 121,000 clients assisted by SHS agencies due to family violence, nearly 41,700
(34%) of clients were aged under 18 (a 4% increase from 2016–17). More than 1 in 5 were aged 0–9
(22%, or 26,500), and 1 in 8 (13%, or 15,200) were aged 10–18. See Chapter 3 for more information.
Impacts and outcomes for children
Child protection and youth justice
The AIHW has linked data from child protection services and youth justice services to examine
the experiences of children aged 10–17 who accessed both systems between July 2013 and June
2017. Data from 6 states and territories (Victoria, Queensland, Western Australia, South Australia,
Tasmania, and the Australian Capital Territory) were included in the study (AIHW 2018e). The linked
data showed a substantial overlap between the young people interacting with these 2 services:
• Almost half (48%, or 3,700) young people under youth justice supervision also received child
protection services (Figure 6.5). This was higher among those in youth detention (53%, or 2,400)
than among those under community-based supervision (48%, or 3,400). Youth detention and
community-based supervision are 2 escalating forms of youth justice supervision.
• The 3,700 young people who accessed both services represented 8% of the 44,700 children who
received child protection services in this period.
Figure 6 5: Young people who had received child protection services, had been under
youth justice supervision, or both, 1 July 2013 to 30 June 2017
Notes
1. Data from Victoria, Queensland, Western Australia, South Australia, Tasmania, and the Australian Capital Territory.
2. These data include only those young people who were aged 10–14 at 1 July 2013.
3. The size of the pie charts indicates the number of young people in each service.
Source: AIHW 2018e.
Child protection
44,668
Youth
justice
4,065
Both child protection
and youth justice
3,711
78 Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019
Young people receiving child protection services are more likely to enter the youth
justice system
Young people who received child protection services were 9 times as likely as the general population
of the same age to enter the youth justice system. This increased to 16 times for young people who
were in out-of-home care.
Of the young people who accessed both child protection and youth justice, more than 4 in 5 (82%,
or 3,000) accessed child protection frst. In contrast, young Indigenous people were more likely to
come into contact with youth justice frst (22% compared with 15% of non-Indigenous young people).
More than 1 in 4 (26%, or 900) young Indigenous males and 1 in 10 (12%, or 500) young Indigenous
females who had been the subject of an investigated notifcation for child protection also came
under youth justice supervision. These rates were higher than those for non-Indigenous males
(8%, or 1,100) and non-Indigenous females (3%, or 500) (AIHW 2018e).
Child development in the context of family conﬂict
Longitudinal Study of Australian Children
The Longitudinal Study of Australian Children (LSAC) follows the wellbeing of 10,000 children and
families from all parts of Australia. The study began in 2004 and follows 2 groups of families with
children born in 2003–2004 or 1999–2000. The LSAC examines the eﬀect of Australia’s social,
economic and cultural environment on the children. Families are visited every 2 years.
The study consists of interviews with parents (resident with the child and non-resident) and with
teachers; assessments of the children; and data linkages. The interviews have sometimes included
questions to record if family conﬂict is a factor in the children’s family. Only violence towards adults
in the family is recorded.
The LSAC collected responses from mothers (biological mothers, stepmothers and adoptive mothers)
regarding conﬂict with fathers or father-fgures, either in the same household or living elsewhere.
This conﬂict included verbal and physical conﬂict, such as arguments, tension, and violence. Such
conﬂict is likely to be common in couples experiencing family and domestic violence, but it is not
necessarily indicative of abusive behaviour where 1 partner is seeking to exert power and control
over the other.
Analysis by the Australian Institute of Family Studies looked at the outcomes for children where
conﬂict between parents was reported. Children from the 2 groups were assessed at ages 4–5, 8–9,
and 12–13. When the children were assessed at ages 8–13, 1 in 3 (35–36%) had been exposed to
conﬂict between their parents at some point during the years of observation (Kaspiew et al. 2017).
The psychological distress of parents tended to be higher among those who reported conﬂict with
the other parent. Among parents who reported no conﬂict, 6–7% had high scores for psychological
distress. Among those who reported some conﬂict (in the past or in the most recent survey) 12–15%
had high distress scores, and for those who reported persistent conﬂict (in the most recent survey
and in the past), this rose to 24–33%.
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019 79
Mothers who experience conﬂict are more likely to report poorer health for their children
When mothers were asked to rate the health of a child, 20–24% of those who had experienced
conﬂict reported that their child’s health was ‘fair’ or ‘poor’, compared with 11–14% of mothers who
had not experienced conﬂict (Kaspiew et al. 2017).
Maternal Health Study
Some data are available from the Maternal Health Study (Box 4.1) to investigate the medium-term
impacts of partner violence on child emotional and behavioural development.
Violence during pregnancy can have health consequences for babies
Around 1 in 5 (12%) of women who experienced family violence gave birth to a baby with low
birthweight (less than 2,500 grams) and were around twice as likely to give birth to babies with
low birthweight, compared with women who did not experience violence. Babies born with low
birthweight are at higher risk of developing a range of health conditions such as diabetes and
hypertension earlier, compared with babies born in the normal weight range (Brown et al. 2015).
Children of mothers reporting abuse are more likely to experience emotional and
behavioural difculties
Just over 1 in 5 (22%) of children whose mothers reported intimate partner abuse in the frst year
after giving birth had emotional and/or behavioural difculties at age 4. For children whose mothers
reported intimate partner abuse at 4 years after giving birth, around 1 in 3 (24%) had emotional
and/or behavioural difculties. About 1 in 9 (11%) of all children in the study had emotional and/or
behavioural difculties at age 4 (Gartland et al. 2014).
More than half (62%) of the mothers reporting intimate partner abuse in the frst year after
giving birth also reported that they had experienced violence again, 4 years after giving birth
(Gartland et al. 2014).
Child abuse and neglect is the highest health risk factor for boys aged 0–14
The Australian Burden of Disease Study 2015 estimated the amount of burden that could be avoided if
no one in Australia had experienced child abuse and neglect. This estimate includes the mental health
and injury outcomes experienced at all ages in 2015 attributable to exposure during childhood.
In estimating this burden, 3 diseases were causally linked to exposure to child abuse and neglect:
• depressive disorders
• anxiety disorders
• suicide and self-inﬂicted injuries
In 2015, child abuse and neglect contributed to:
• 788 deaths (0.5% of deaths)
• 2.2% (102,751 DALY) of the burden of disease and injury (AIHW forthcoming 2019).
80 Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019
For females aged 0–44 and males aged 0–14, Child abuse and neglect during childhood was ranked as
the leading risk factor. For males aged 15–44, Child abuse and neglect during childhood was ranked as
the 3rd leading risk factor.
Anxiety disorders were the largest contributor to the burden due to child abuse and neglect (39%),
followed by suicide and self-inﬂicted injuries (34%) and depressive disorders (27%).
Figure 6.6 shows the reduction in burden of disease in 2015 if no one had ever experienced child
abuse or neglect.
Figure 6 6: The burden of disease due to child abuse and neglect, 2015
Source: AIHW forthcoming 2019.
Homicide
According to the ABS 2017 Recorded Crime—Victims data collection, around 1 in 6 (16%, or 20)
victims of Family and domestic violence homicides and related oﬀences were aged 19 or under
(ABS 2018b).
Nearly half of children killed by a parent are killed by their custodial mother
‘Filicide’ is the killing of a child by a parent or parent-equivalent. Between 2000–01 and 2011–12,
238 incidents of flicide, in which 284 victims were killed, were recorded by police in Australia.
Almost all (96%, or 274) of the victims were aged under 18; 4% (10) were aged 18–33. There were
more male (56%, or 158) victims than females (44%, or 125). The flicides were committed by 260
oﬀenders. Of the 284 victims:
• 46% (133) were killed by their custodial mother
• 29% (81) were killed by their custodial father
• 14% (41) were killed by their stepfather
• 10% (27) were killed by their non-custodial father
• 1 was killed by their non-custodial mother
• 1 was killed by a custodial parent of unknown gender.
A history of domestic violence between the oﬀender and an intimate partner was a characteristic in
almost 1 in 3 (30%, or 57) flicide incidents (Brown et al. 2019).
Data on children killed in domestic violence incidents were reported by the NSW Domestic Violence
Death Review Team (Box 6.2).
If no one had experienced child abuse and neglect, then in 2015 the disease burden would
have been reduced by:
26% less suicide and self-inﬂicted injuries
20% less depressive disorders
27% less anxiety disorders
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019 81
Box 6 2: NSW Domestic Violence Death Review Team
The NSW Domestic Violence Death Review Team collected data on children killed in a domestic
violence incident between 1 July 2000 and 30 June 2014 (NSW Domestic Violence Death Review
Team 2017). The team identifed 65 homicide victims aged under 18 in this period. The vast
majority of these children (97%) were killed by a parent (either biological or step-parents).
Of those children killed by a parent, 61% were killed by a father and 39% by a mother.
More than half of the victims were boys (57%) and more than three-quarters (77%) of all child
victims were killed in the home. One in 5 child victims (20%) were Indigenous (NSW Domestic
Violence Death Review Team 2017).
Young women
Young women experience more intimate partner and sexual violence than older women
Women’s exposure to violence diﬀers across the age groups. The 2016 PSS reported that women
aged 18 to 34 were more likely to experience intimate partner violence and/or sexual violence than
women aged 35 and over in the 12 months before the survey:
• 1 in 20 (4.0%, or 117,000) women aged 18 to 34 experienced intimate partner violence, compared
with 1.5% (95,800) women aged 35 and over
• 1 in 20 (4.3%, or 125,000) women aged 18 to 34 experienced sexual violence from any perpetrator,
compared with 0.7% (44,500) women aged 35 and over
• around 2.3% (66,000) women aged 18 to 34 had experienced both intimate partner violence and
sexual violence, compared with 0.4% of women aged 35 and over (24,300) (ABS 2018a).
In contrast, women aged 18 to 24 were less likely to have experienced emotional abuse from a
cohabiting partner, compared with women aged 25 and over:
• 3.4% (37,000) women aged 18 to 24 had experienced emotional abuse from a partner,
compared with 6.3% (314,000) women aged 25 to 54, and 3.2% (105,000) women aged 55 and
older (Figure 6.7) (ABS 2018a).
In interpreting these results, it is important to note that younger women were also less likely to have
ever had a cohabiting partner, compared with women aged 25 and over. Three in 10 (29%) of women
aged 18 to 24 have ever had a cohabiting partner, compared with 88% of women aged 25 to 54, and
84% of women aged 55 and older (ABS 2018a).
82 Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019
Figure 6 7: Women who experienced intimate partner violence, sexual violence or
emotional abuse in the 12 months before the survey, by age group, 2016
Note: ‘Intimate partner violence’ includes physical and/or sexual violence from a current or previous cohabiting partner,
boyfriend, girlfriend or date. Intimate partner violence does not include emotional abuse.
Source: ABS 2018a.
The Australian Longitudinal Study on Women’s Health asked 3 cohorts of women about their
experiences of unwanted sexual activity. Younger women were more likely than older women to
report having ever experienced unwanted sexual activity, with 27% of women aged 18–23 in 2013
reporting that they had ever experienced unwanted sexual activity, compared with 10% of women
aged 62–67 in 2013 (Loxton et al. unpublished).
Young women are disproportionately victims of sexual assault
According to the ABS Recorded Crime—Victims, Australia collection, in 2017, young women aged
15–19 had the highest rates of reported sexual assault of any age and sex group. There were 763
sexual assault victims per 100,000 women in this age group. Girls aged 10–14 had the second highest
reported rate of victimisation (549 victims per 100,000 females aged 10–14) (Figure 6.10) (ABS 2018b).
Among males, boys aged 10–14 had the highest reported sexual assault rates, with police recording
115 victims per 100,000 boys in this age group. Young men aged 15–19 had the next highest rate
(85 victims per 100,000 males aged 15–19), followed by boys aged 0–9 (54 victims per 100,000)
(Figure 6.8) (ABS 2018b).
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
18–24 25–34 35–44 45–54 55–64 65+
Per cent
Age group
Intimate partner violence Sexual violence Partner emotional abuse
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019 83
Figure 6 8: Sexual assault victimisation rate for female and male victims, by age group,
by sex, 2017
Source: ABS 2019b.
Young women are most vulnerable to sexual harassment
The 2016 PSS reported that 1 in 2 women and 1 in 4 men aged 18 and over had experienced 1 or
more types of sexual harassment behaviour in their lifetime. Younger women were more likely to
have experienced sexual harassment, with almost 2 in 5 (38%, or 421,000) women aged 18 to 24
experiencing sexual harassment in the 12 months before the survey (Figure 6.9) (ABS 2017c).
Figure 6 9: Women and men who experienced sexual harassment in the 12 months before
the survey, by age group, 2016
Source: ABS 2017c.
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
0 – 9 10 –14 15 –19 20 –24 25 –34 35 – 44 45 – 54 55 – 64 65+
Victimisation rate (per 100,000)
Age group
Females Males
5 0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
18–24 25–34 35–44 45–54 55–64 65+
Per cent
Age group
Women Men
84 Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019
Younger women are most likely to experience stalking from a male
One in 16 (6.4%, or 69,900) women aged 18 to 24 experienced stalking from a male in the 12 months
before the survey, but this proportion fell with age (Figure 6.10) (ABS 2017c).
Figure 6 10: Women who experienced stalking by a male in the 12 months before the
survey, by age group, 2016
Source: ABS 2017c.
Older people
In Australia, ‘older people’ are generally defned as those aged 65 and over. However, there is some
ﬂexibility on this age defnition: for example, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people are often
included among ‘older people’ from the age of 50 (Kaspiew et al. 2016).
Elder abuse is a serious public health problem that can cause a range of physical, psychological and
fnancial harm to older people (WHO 2018b). Elder abuse can take the form of many types of abuse,
including psychological or emotional abuse, fnancial abuse, physical abuse, sexual abuse, and neglect
(Australian Law Reform Commission 2017).
There is no agreed defnition for elder abuse, but the defnition most commonly used in Australia is
from the World Health Organization (WHO 2018b):
Elder abuse is a single or repeated act or lack of appropriate action, occurring within any relationship
where there is an expectation of trust, which causes harm or distress to an older person.
A key aspect of the defnition is that it occurs in relationships where there is ‘an expectation of trust’.
Such relationships include those with family members, friends, and some professionals such as paid
carers.
Elder abuse can occur within the context of family and domestic violence, and in institutional
relationships, such as in aged care facilities and health-care services (Joosten et al. 2017).
This report focuses on elder abuse in the context of family and domestic violence.
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
18–24 25–34 35–44 45–54 55–64 65+
Per cent
Age group
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019 85
Elder abuse is often under-reported, as victims can be reluctant to disclose ill-treatment by a
family member; or where they are dependent on the abuser for care. Older people with cognitive
impairment (for example, dementia) may also be unable to report the abuse (WHO 2018b).
The prevalence of elder abuse among Australians is unknown, although research has provided
some information on the prevalence of certain types of abuse among subgroups of the population.
Worldwide, it is estimated that almost 1 in 6 (16%) of people aged 60 and over have been the victim
of elder abuse in the past year (WHO 2018b).
The Australian Longitudinal Study on Women’s Health found that, in 1996, among over 12,200 women
aged 70–75, 39% reported vulnerability to elder abuse, which included factors such as conﬂict and
stress in families, recent abusive episodes and poor mental and physical health (Schofeld and Mishra
2003). The women had most commonly (22%) experienced dejection which included feeling sad or
lonely, uncomfortable with anyone in their family, or that nobody wants them around (Schofeld et
al. 2013). There is some evidence that elder abuse is linked to health status, with dejection shown
to be predictive of decline in physical and mental health over a 3-year period (Schofeld and Mishra
2004). There is also evidence that abuse in older age is predictive of both early death and disability
(Schofeld et al. 2013).
Elder abuse reported to helplines
Each state and territory in Australia has a telephone helpline for elder abuse. These helplines are
delivered by government and non-government organisations, and provide information, advice
and referrals. The helplines of each state and territory, except for the Northern Territory, provided
de-identifed data about the support services they delivered during 2017–18. These data provide
information about instances in which elder abuse is identifed or suspected. Callers can be the victims
of elder abuse or other people who have concerns about an older person. These data should be
interpreted with caution, as the helplines do not collect data according to nationally standardised
defnitions and the data provided do not include information about calls where it was not possible to
collect detailed information about victims. The fndings relate to information about calls to helplines and
are not an estimate of prevalence. It is possible that elder abuse cases are under-reported to helplines.
Analysis presented in this section includes all cases of elder abuse reported to helplines, with an
analysis of the cases attributable to family and domestic violence.
In 2017–18, more than 10,900 calls were made to elder abuse helplines across Australia (Figure 6.11).
86 Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019
Figure 6 11: Calls to elder abuse telephone helplines, by state, 2017–18
Sources: ACT Community Services Directorate 2018; Advocacy Tasmania Inc. unpublished; Advocare unpublished;
Elder Abuse Prevention Unit unpublished; NSW Elder Abuse Helpline & Resource Unit unpublished; Ofce for the Ageing
SA Health unpublished; Seniors Rights Victoria unpublished.
Where the identity of the caller was recorded, the most common types of callers were the victims of
elder abuse and members of their family (Table 6.1).
Table 6 1: Telephone calls to elder abuse helplines, by selected identity of caller, by state, 2017–18

Identity of caller (%)
State	Victim of elder abuse	Family of elder abuse victim	Other
New South Wales	20	45	35
Victoria	26	47	27
Queensland	26	47	27
Western Australia	25	18*	57
South Australia	24	39	37
Tasmania	36	35	29

* Western Australian provided the total number of callers who were either a family member or friend of the reported victim.
Note: Data were not available for the Australian Capital Territory. Elder abuse helplines collect and classify data in diﬀerent ways,
so caution should be exercised when comparing between states.
Sources: Advocacy Tasmania Inc. unpublished; Advocare unpublished Elder Abuse Prevention Unit unpublished; NSW Elder Abuse
Helpline & Resource Unit unpublished; Ofce for the Ageing SA Health unpublished; Seniors Rights Victoria unpublished.
Western Australia
654

Northern Territory
Not provided

South Australia
417

Queensland
3,006
New South Wales
2,943
Victoria
3,462
Tasmania
374
Australian
Capital Territory
81
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019 87
In the states where the relationship between victim and perpetrator was recorded, the majority of
abuse that was reported took place in a family and domestic violence context (Table 6.2).
Table 6 2: Proportion of elder abuse cases reported to helplines that are directly attributable
to family and domestic violence, by state, 2017–18

State	Elder abuse reports attributable to family and domestic violence (%)
New South Wales	70
Victoria	86
Queensland	84
Western Australia	84

Sources: Advocare unpublished; Elder Abuse Prevention Unit unpublished; NSW Elder Abuse Helpline & Resource Unit unpublished;
Seniors Rights Victoria unpublished.
Helplines in 5 states (New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, Western Australia, and South Australia)
collected data about the relationships between victims and perpetrators.
The most commonly reported relationship was that of an adult child perpetrating elder abuse
against a parent. Sons and daughters were similarly likely to be the reported perpetrators of elder
abuse (Figure 6.12). These data could reﬂect a likelihood of elder abuse being perpetrated within the
immediate family, or an increased visibility of this form of abuse, or a combination of both.
Figure 6 12: Relationship of reported elder abuse perpetrators to reported victims,
as reported to elder abuse helplines, by state, 2017–18
Note: Elder abuse helplines collect and classify data in diﬀerent ways, so caution should be exercised when comparing
between states.
Sources: Advocare unpublished; Elder Abuse Prevention Unit unpublished; NSW Elder Abuse Helpline & Resource Unit
unpublished; Ofce for the Ageing SA Health unpublished; Seniors Rights Victoria unpublished.
5 0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
NSW Vic Qld WA SA
Per cent
State
Daughter Son
88 Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019
Age of victims
New South Wales, Victoria, and Queensland collected data on the age of reported victims of elder
abuse. The proportion of victims generally rose with age, up to the 75–84 age group (Figure 6.13).
Compared with the general population aged over 55, older age groups were over-represented in the
reports of elder abuse in these states. While only 17–18% of the population aged over 55 were aged
75–84 in these states, this age group accounted for 34–40% of all elder abuse calls. While 7–8% of the
over-55 population were aged 85 or older, this age group accounted for 21–34% of all elder abuse calls.
Figure 6 13: Proportion of victims reported to elder abuse helplines, by age, where known,
by state, 2017–18
Note: Elder abuse helplines collect and classify data in diﬀerent ways, so caution should be exercised when comparing
between states.
Sources: Elder Abuse Prevention Unit unpublished; NSW Elder Abuse Helpline & Resource Unit unpublished; Seniors Rights
Victoria unpublished.
Women are more likely to be the reported victims of elder abuse
Helplines in 6 states (New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, Western Australia, South Australia,
and Tasmania) recorded the sex of elder abuse victims in 2017–18. Female victims disproportionately
outnumbered male victims in each state, ranging from 66% to 74% of reported victims (Figure 6.14).
5 0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
NSW Vic Qld
Per cent
State
<55 55 –64 65 –74 75 –84 85+
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019 89
Figure 6 14: Sex, where known, of elder abuse victims reported to elder abuse helplines,
by state, 2017–18
Note: Elder abuse helplines collect and classify data in diﬀerent ways, so caution should be exercised when comparing
between states.
Sources: Advocare unpublished; Advocacy Tasmania Inc. unpublished; Elder Abuse Prevention Unit unpublished; NSW Elder
Abuse Helpline & Resource Unit unpublished; Ofce for the Ageing SA Health unpublished; Seniors Rights Victoria unpublished.
Perpetrators of elder abuse
Elder abuse helplines in 5 states (New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, Western Australia,
and Tasmania) recorded the sex of reported perpetrators of elder abuse. Females and males were
equally likely to be reported as perpetrators (Figure 6.15).
Figure 6 15: Sex, where known, of elder abuse perpetrators reported to elder abuse
helplines, by state, 2017–18
Note: Elder abuse helplines collect and classify data in diﬀerent ways, so caution should be exercised when comparing
across states.
Sources: Advocacy Tasmania Inc. unpublished; Advocare unpublished; Elder Abuse Prevention Unit unpublished;
NSW Elder Abuse Helpline & Resource Unit unpublished; Seniors Rights Victoria unpublished.
0
20
40
60
80
100
NSW Vic Qld WA SA Tas
Per cent
State
Females
Males
0
20
40
60
80
100
NSW Vic Qld WA Tas
Per cent
State
Females
Males
90 Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019
Types of elder abuse
As is the case for many incidents of family, domestic and sexual violence, elder abuse is often
experienced in multiple forms. Diﬀerent types of abuse can take place at the same time and are
often interconnected.
The helplines in each state and territory in Australia classify types of abuse diﬀerently, so direct
comparisons cannot be made. However, data can be grouped into broad categories and the most
common categories were emotional abuse and fnancial abuse (Figure 6.16).
Figure 6 16: Reports to elder abuse helplines, by type of abuse, by state, 2017–18
* South Australia and Tasmania provided data on selected types of abuse only. South Australia’s data is shown for emotional
abuse and fnancial abuse only. Tasmania’s data is shown for emotional abuse, fnancial abuse, and physical abuse only.
Note: Elder abuse helplines collect and classify data in diﬀerent ways, so caution should be exercised when comparing
between states. Multiple types of abuse can be reported for a single victim, so totals will not sum to 100%.
Sources: Advocacy Tasmania Inc. unpublished; Advocare unpublished; Elder Abuse Prevention Unit unpublished; NSW Elder
Abuse Helpline & Resource Unit unpublished; Ofce for the Ageing SA Health unpublished; Seniors Rights Victoria unpublished.
People with disability
The 2016 PSS asked respondents about long-term health conditions, restrictions and impairments
and the impacts that these had on everyday activities. A person is considered to have a disability if
they have at least 1 of a list of limitations, restrictions or impairments, which has lasted, or is likely
to last, for at least 6 months and restricts their everyday activities (ABS 2017b).This includes physical,
intellectual and psychological disabilities; sight, hearing and speech disabilities; and disabilities
resulting from injury, stroke or brain damage.
Protecting people with disability is a commitment under the United Nations Convention on the
Rights of Persons with Disabilities (see Box 6.3).
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
NSW Vic Qld WA SA* Tas*
Per cent
State
Emotional Financial Neglect Physical Sexual
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019 91
Box 6 3: United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities
The UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities includes a commitment to
‘protect persons with disabilities, both within and outside the home, from all forms of
exploitation, violence and abuse.’
Source: Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, Article 16 (2006).
The PSS questions about disability ask about long-term conditions and impacts on daily activities
at the time of the survey. It is therefore not possible to distinguish whether or not a person had
a disability at the time of experiencing violence (ABS 2017b). Data presented on disability also do
not identify whether disability is a risk factor for, or outcome of, experiencing family, domestic and
sexual violence. Understanding the experiences of people with disability, as a population, can provide
helpful information for organisations providing services to this population.
The PSS does not sample respondents from non-private dwellings (such as institutional care settings)
and does not have a large sample of people with disability. PSS interviews are conducted in private
and no proxy respondents were used for the sensitive component, so people who use the assistance
of another person to communicate were not able to answer questions about their experiences of
violence. It is likely that the PSS under-represents people with profound and severe disability
(ABS 2017b). Findings from the PSS relating to people with disability should be interpreted with
caution, but it is currently the best available source of data about their experiences.
People with disability can experience additional forms of family, domestic and sexual violence,
such as reproductive control; forced or withheld medical treatment; and forced isolation or restraint
(Frohmader et al. 2015).The PSS does not collect information on these specifc types of violence and
there are limited other national data available on the specifc types of violence experienced by people
with disability.
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia 2018 used the 2016 PSS to show that people with
disability were around 1.8 times as likely to have experienced violence from a current or previous
cohabiting partner in the year before the survey. For women, 2.5% (72,300) of those with disability
had experienced partner violence, compared with 1.3% (83,700) women without disability. For men,
this was 1.1% (32,200) men with disability and 0.6% (39,700) men without (ABS 2017c). This report
further explores experiences of emotional abuse, sexual violence, and sexual harassment among
people with disability.
The abuse and neglect of vulnerable adults in New South Wales was reported by the NSW Ombudsman
(Box 6.4).
92 Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019
Box 6 4: Abuse and neglect of vulnerable adults in New South Wales
The NSW Ombudsman report Abuse and neglect of vulnerable adults in New South Wales: the need
for action examined and responded to allegations of abuse and neglect of adults with a disability
in community settings. Between August 2015 and October 2018, the inquiry collected 358
reports relating to alleged abuse and neglect of adults living with disability—206 (58%) of which
required action.
Of these 206 reports, intellectual disability was the most commonly recorded disability and
was mentioned in 53% of cases (110). This was followed by physical disability (17%, or 36);
neurological disability (13%, or 26); psychosocial disability (13%, or 26); and autism (12%, or 25).
Other cognitive disabilities (9%, or 19); acquired brain injury (8%, or 16); and sensory disability
(4%, or 8) were also listed.
More than two-thirds (68%, or 141) of the reports were about the conduct of family members,
most of which concerned a parent (99) or sibling (31) of the alleged victim as the primary
perpetrator. The alleged victim’s partner/spouse was the subject of the allegation in 17% (35)
matters. Neglect (38%, or 78 reports) was the most common type of abuse or neglect mentioned,
followed by physical abuse (37%, or 77); ill-treatment (27%, or 56); fnancial abuse (25%, or 52);
and sexual abuse (12%, or 24) reports.
It is important to note that the ombudsman’s inquiry was not actively promoted, so the number
of incidents is likely to have been under-reported.
Source: NSW Ombudsman 2018.
Emotional abuse
Women and men with disability are more likely to report having experienced emotional abuse from
a current or previous partner than women and men without disability.
People with disability are 1.5 times as likely to have experienced emotional abuse from
a partner than people without disability
According to the 2016 PSS, 1 in 4 (26%, or 1.4 million) people with disability had experienced
emotional abuse from a current or previous partner since the age of 15, compared with 17%
(2.1 million) people without disability.
For women, 1 in 3 (32%, or 929,000) women with disability reported that they had experienced
emotional abuse from a current or previous partner since the age of 15, compared with 1 in 5
(19%, or 1.2 million) women without disability.
For men, 1 in 5 (20%, or 558,000) men with disability had experienced emotional abuse from a
current or previous partner since the age of 15, compared with 1 in 7 (14%, or 877,000) men without
disability (Figure 6.17) (ABS 2017c, 2018a).
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019 93
Figure 6 17: Proportion of people who experienced emotional abuse from a current or
previous partner since the age of 15, by disability status, by sex, 2016
Sources: ABS 2018a, 2017c.
People with disability were more likely to have experienced certain types of emotional abuse,
compared with people without disability. Among people who were emotionally abused by their
most recently emotionally abusive previous partner, people with disability were more likely to
report that they had experienced:
• fnancial abuse (50%, or 591,000), compared with people without disability (37%, or 579,000)
• deprivation of basic needs such as food, shelter, sleep or assistive aids (14%, or 172,000),
compared with people without disability (8%, or 124,000)
• insults intended to cause shame or humiliation (56%, or 668,000), compared with people without
disability (46%, or 707,000) (ABS 2018a).
People with disability were also more likely to report having experienced emotional abuse from
multiple previous partners. Of the people who reported having experienced emotional abuse from a
previous partner, almost 1 in 4 (24%, or 282,000) of those with disability had experienced emotional
abuse from more than 1 partner, compared with 1 in 6 (16%, or 244,000) of those without disability
(ABS 2018a).
5 0
10
15
20
25
30
35
People with disability People without disability
Per cent
Females Males
94 Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019
Sexual violence
Women and men with disability are more likely to have experienced sexual violence
than those without disability
The 2016 PSS showed that 25% (748,000) women with disability had experienced sexual violence
(including assault and threats) since the age of 15, compared with 15% (980,000) women without
disability. For men, this was 6.5% (184,000) men with disability, compared with 3.9% (240,000) men
without disability (ABS 2018a).
Women with disability were most likely to have experienced sexual violence from a current or
previous partner (33%, or 245,000 women). Men with disability were most likely to have experienced
sexual violence from a stranger (29%, or 52,500 men), however, due to small numbers of men
reporting sexual violence in the PSS, this should be interpreted with caution (Figure 6.18) (ABS 2018a).
Figure 6 18: Relationship to all perpetrators of sexual violence experienced since age 15,
people with disability, by sex, 2016
Source: ABS 2018a.
Sexual harassment
More than 2 in 5 (44%) of people with disability had been sexually harassed in their workplace in the
previous 5 years, compared with 32% of people without disability. Almost half (52%) of women with
disability and 2 in 5 (35%) of men with disability had experienced sexual harassment in the previous
5 years (AHRC 2018).
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Current/previous boyfriend,
girlfriend or date
Current/previous partner
Family member
Friend or housemate
Acquaintance or neighbour
Other known person
Stranger
Per cent
Women
Men
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019 95
People from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds
There is no substantive Australian research on family, domestic and sexual violence among people
from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds. However, there are pockets of research
on specifc types of violence in certain cultural groups. For example, research conducted by the
Australian Institute of Criminology has explored understanding and experiences of sexual violence
among young women from African communities, and the types of responses to this group of young
women by Australian agencies (see Box 6.5).
Box 6 5: Preventing sexual violence against young women from African backgrounds
In 2018, the Australian Institute of Criminology studied the understanding and experiences
of sexual coercion and violence among young women from African refugee and migrant
backgrounds. The aim was to investigate current awareness of the issues and document how
agencies responded to sexual violence.
Data were gathered from 81 government and non-government agencies across Western
Australia and South Australia. From these services, 23 professionals who worked with the
women participated in a focus group. Data were also collected through 12 in-depth interviews
with young women from African backgrounds, and a focus group of 6 women.
While the report found that women were developing awareness of sexual violence, there were
diﬀering views about what constituted sexual violence. The young women felt that taboos
associated with speaking publicly about sex and sexual violence inhibited community education.
Consequently, knowledge of the laws concerning sexual violence and available support was
incomplete. These limitations in understanding, together with community barriers and practical
barriers—such as language, transport, caring responsibilities and other settlement issues—meant
that, overall, the young women were unlikely to disclose and seek help.
Source: Chung et al. 2018.
Forced marriage
Forced marriage—when a person gets married without freely and fully consenting—can occur
within the context of family, domestic and sexual violence (Lyneham and Bricknell 2018). Victims
may have been coerced, threatened or deceived, or be incapable of understanding the nature and
consequences of marriage, for reasons including age or mental capacity. Forced marriage is illegal
in Australia and was introduced into the Criminal Code Act 1995 (Cth) on 8 March 2013.
Forced marriage has been associated with socially conservative communities that value tradition
and strict behavioural norms. People with disability and people suspected of promiscuity or
homosexuality are often at high risk of forced marriage (Lyneham and Bricknell 2018).
96 Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019
Forced marriages are difcult to count and legal responses are rare
There are limited data available on forced marriages. Cases are difcult to identify and may not be
reported due to:
• forced marriages taking place in closed families and communities
• reluctance to incriminate family members or themselves
• fear of retribution, shame and ostracism from family and community when reporting a forced
marriage.
In 2015–16, the Australian Federal Police received 69 case referrals for forced marriage (IDC ICoHTaS
2016). A total of 116 case referrals have been received since forced marriage became a criminal
oﬀence in March 2013—all cases involved young females. Most had been, or were at risk of being,
taken overseas and forced to marry. No cases have progressed through the criminal courts
(Lyneham and Bricknell 2018).
Forced marriages may be hidden from authorities
Forced marriages are hidden from public view and often not registered with authorities. The AIC has
reported that it is common for victim-survivors to marry a member of their extended family or, if not,
a suitor that shares their religion, nationality or country of birth.
It is also common for the marriage ceremony to take place abroad, in the suitor’s or victim-survivor’s
home country, where forced marriage may be common and laws either do not exist or are relaxed.
Ceremonies can also take place in private settings rather than public places. Common experiences
while in a forced marriage include:
• physical and emotional abuse
• sexual abuse, including sexual assault and forced pregnancy
• fnancial abuse
• restricted movement and isolation
• domestic servitude by the victim-survivor’s spouse or family
• denial of basic human rights such as education and employment (Lyneham and Bricknell 2018).
Young women and girls are most at risk
Anyone can be a victim of forced marriage, regardless of their age, gender or sexual orientation.
While men and boys can be victims of forced marriage, most reported victims are young women and
girls, who are frequently forced to marry older men.
UNICEF estimates that, in selected countries, where data were available, 21% of young women
(aged 20 to 24) were married as children. This includes formal marriages, and informal unions that
took place when the women were under the age of 18 and living with their partners as if married.
Most of these cases have been reported as taking place in South Asia and Northern and Western
Africa (UNICEF 2018). These estimates cannot be used to assess the extent of forced marriage in
Australia, but may indicate who is most vulnerable.
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019 97
Visa abuse
Refugees and immigrants living in Australia on temporary visas may face an additional complexity
in their experiences of domestic or family violence: their temporary migrant status can be used by a
perpetrator to control or coerce them or a family member. For example, a person in Australia on a
temporary partner visa may face deportation if the relationship breaks down, or a perpetrator with
citizenship may threaten to take custody of any children.
There are provisions within the Migration Act 1958 for people who are in Australia on temporary
partner visas who experience a relationship breakdown due to family violence. A person in these
circumstances may be able to access permanent residency. There are no provisions for people on
any other type of temporary visa, and many have limited access to fnancial or housing support.
The Victorian organisation InTouch provides services, programs and responses after incidents of
family violence in migrant and refugee communities. In 2017, researchers studied 300 of InTouch’s
case fles from women who sought support in 2015–16 (Segrave 2017).
Of these women, 2 in 5 (39%, or 117) had been threatened with deportation, and 4 in 10 (44%, or 132)
were threatened that sponsorship for their visa application would be withdrawn. About 1 in 4
(34%, or 102) women had been abused via technology, which includes abuse via social media or
direct messaging, or controlling or monitoring technology use. More than half (52%, or 155) of these
women had children. Researchers also identifed 11 cases of human trafcking (Segrave 2017).
In response to a lack of national data on the experience of violence among women on temporary
visas and their children, the National Advocacy Group on Temporary Visas Experiencing Violence
developed an online survey to collect data from relevant service providers. The survey was
distributed through the group’s networks across Australia. Service providers could submit data
on women they had worked with or who had sought assistance during August 2018. The survey
identifed that 387 women on temporary visas experiencing violence had accessed support services
in Australia during this period.
Of these women:
• more than half (55%, or 214) had 1 or more children or dependants
• 1 in 4 (24%, or 93) were living in crisis accommodation and around 1 in 10 (11%, or 43) were living
in temporary accommodation.
One in 10 (10%, or 37) were living at home with their partner, which may increase their risk of
experiencing further violence. Housing (crisis, long-term and housing appropriate for families) was
the service most needed that organisations were unable to provide, followed by fnancial assistance
(National Advocacy Group on Women on Temporary Visas Experiencing Violence 2018).
98 Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019
Female genital mutilation/cutting
The term ‘female genital mutilation/cutting’ (FGM/C) refers to all procedures involving partial or total
removal of the external female genitalia, or other injury to the female genital organs, for non-medical
reasons. It is illegal in all Australian states and territories to perform FGM/C, and mandatory reporting
laws require that selected professional groups (for example, medical practitioners and teachers)
report instances where they suspect FGM/C has been conducted, in Australia or overseas, on children
normally living in Australia.
Both the United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF) and WHO estimate that
FGM/C aﬀects more than 200 million women and girls across the world (UNICEF 2016, WHO 2018a).
FGM/C is a global issue. It aﬀects not only women and girls living in communities in some African,
Asian and Middle-Eastern regions where FGM/C is a common cultural practice, but also, due to
migration, women and girls in other parts of the world—including Australia.
FGM/C has no health benefts and there is no medical justifcation for it. Girls and women who have
undergone FGM/C may be left with lifelong medical and psychological complications, for which
treatment can be sought in Australia—for example, from outpatient clinics specialising in FGM/C in
some major cities and from other health and social care services. Achieving total abandonment of
the practice by 2030 is a priority within the United Nations’ sustainable development (WHO 2018a).
How many women and girls in Australia are aﬀected?
There is limited evidence on the extent of FGM/C in Australia. In February 2019, the AIHW published
Towards estimating the prevalence of female genital mutilation/cutting in Australia. The report estimated
that 53,000 women and girls born elsewhere but now living in Australia had undergone FGM/C
(AIHW 2019c). This fgure is based on modelled calculations only, and should be interpreted with
caution. While rudimentary, this estimate provides insight into the potential extent of FGM/C in
Australia. Further information on the study’s methodology can be found at www.aihw.gov.au/
reports/men-women/female-genital-mutilation-cutting-australia/contents/summary.
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019 99
LGBTIQ+ people
The LGBTIQ+ community includes individuals who identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender,
intersex, queer or otherwise diverse in gender, sex or sexuality. LGBTIQ+ people can face harassment
and discrimination based on their identity, which can be a barrier to gaining employment or
accessing services such as education or health care. The marginalisation of LGBTIQ+ people makes
them vulnerable to diﬀerent forms of family and domestic violence (AHRC 2015). For example, an
abusive partner can exert control by threatening to disclose their partner’s sexuality, gender identity
or intersex variations to their family, friends or workplace, which can lead to fear of the loss of
employment or relationships (Campo and Tayton 2015b).
Lesbian and bisexual women
Almost 9,000 women from the Australian Longitudinal Study on Women’s Health who were aged
25–30 in 2003 answered questions about their sexual identity and experiences of intimate partner
violence. Women who identifed as lesbian, bisexual, and mainly heterosexual were more likely to
report abuse than women who identifed as exclusively heterosexual (Szalacha et al. 2017).
Lesbian and bisexual women experience more physical, sexual and emotional abuse
than exclusively heterosexual women
Emotional abuse by a partner was the most commonly reported type of abuse across all sexual
identity groups. Experiences of emotional abuse were most commonly reported among women who
identifed as bisexual (46%), followed by women who identifed as mainly heterosexual (32%), lesbian
(28%), and exclusively heterosexual (21%). Women who identifed as mainly heterosexual, bisexual,
or lesbian were twice as likely to report physical abuse by a partner as women who identifed as
exclusively heterosexual (24%, 29%, and 22%, versus 12%, respectively) (Szalacha et al. 2017).
Experiences of sexual abuse perpetrated by a partner were also most commonly reported by women
who identifed as bisexual (14%), followed by women who identifed as mainly heterosexual (6%),
lesbian (3%), and exclusively heterosexual (2%). Similarly, harassment was most commonly reported
among women who identifed as bisexual (25%), followed by women who identifed as lesbian (21%),
mainly heterosexual (20%), and exclusively heterosexual (10%) (Szalacha et al. 2017).
After controlling for demographic characteristics, bisexual and mainly heterosexual women were
signifcantly more likely to report harassment, and physical, sexual, and emotional abuse, compared with
exclusively heterosexual women. Women who identifed as lesbian were signifcantly more likely to report
physical abuse and harassment, compared with exclusively heterosexual women (Szalacha et al. 2017).
One in 4 (25%) of women who identifed as bisexual or mainly heterosexual, and 15% of women who
identifed as lesbian, reported that they had been in a violent relationship, compared with 1 in 10
(10%) of women who identifed as exclusively heterosexual (Szalacha et al. 2017). After controlling for
demographic characteristics, women who identifed as mainly heterosexual, bisexual or lesbian were
2 to 3 times as likely to have been in a violent relationship in the past 3 years, compared with women
who identifed as exclusively heterosexual (Szalacha et al. 2017).
Of the women who had experienced intimate partner violence, those who identifed as mainly
heterosexual or bisexual were more likely than exclusively heterosexual women to experience stress,
anxiety, depression, and poor mental health (Szalacha et al. 2017).
100 Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019
Although the study captures the sexual identity of women, it does not capture information about
the gender, sex or sexual identity of the perpetrator, nor precise timing of the abusive acts.
Therefore, no inferences about the sex or gender of the perpetrator can be made.
Gay, bisexual, transgender, intersex and queer men
In 2017–18, Western Sydney University and ACON, a health promotion organisation specialising
in lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and intersex health, surveyed almost 900 gay, bisexual,
transgender, intersex and queer men. The men were recruited via ACON’s social media pages and
asked questions about demographic characteristics; sexual and gender identity; experiences of
intimate partner violence; attitudes to violence; and bystander awareness and willingness to intervene.
Of the 894 gay, bisexual, transgender, intersex and queer men surveyed, almost 2 in 3 (62%, or 556)
reported that they had experienced physical, verbal or emotional abuse in a relationship, and 1 in 4
(16%, or 138) had experienced abuse within the last year (Ovenden et al. 2019).
The men surveyed most commonly reported that they have discussed their abusive relationship
with a friend or neighbour (35%, or 310); counsellor or psychologist (18%, or 165); or family or
relative (17%, or 156). Almost 2 in 5 (17%, or 153) did not discuss their abusive relationship with
anyone (Ovenden et al. 2019).
Of the 328 participants who reported witnessing violence or abuse between men in a relationship,
about 2 in 3 (64%) intervened, including 41% (133) who intervened verbally, 14% (46) who intervened
physically, and 23% (76) who sought help or intervened in another way. About 1 in 3 (36%, or 118) did
not intervene or did not know what to do (Ovenden et al. 2019).
Emotional abuse in same-sex relationships
The 2016 PSS estimated that 2% (74,500) Australians who experienced emotional abuse from a
previous partner were in a same-sex relationship with their most recent previous emotionally abusive
partner (ABS 2018a). Based on the 2016 Census, 0.9% of all cohabiting relationships in Australia are
same-sex couples (ABS 2017a). Note that the PSS collects information only on whether a person is
male or female and does not collect information on gender or intersex variations.
Workplace harassment and LGBTIQ+
According to the AHRC 2018 National Survey, the prevalence of workplace sexual harassment in the
last 5 years was higher among those identifying with diverse sexual orientation (52%) than among
those identifying as straight or heterosexual (31%). In the past 5 years, almost half (47%) of those
who identifed as gay or lesbian, and more than half (57%) of those who identifed as bisexual,
experienced workplace sexual harassment. More than half (55%) of people who identifed as having
another sexual orientation experienced sexual harassment in the same time period (AHRC 2018).
Note that the survey did not collect data on experiences of people identifying as trans or gender
diverse.
People with an intersex variation (77%) were more likely than those without such a variation (32%)
to have been sexually harassed in the workplace in the last 5 years. However, given the small survey
sample, these results should be interpreted with caution (AHRC 2018).
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019 101
People in rural and remote Australia
Around 7 million people—about 28% of the population—live in rural and remote areas (ABS 2019c).
The term ‘rural and remote’ covers all areas outside Australia’s Major cities, classifed by the Australian
Statistical Geography Standard as Inner regional, Outer regional, Remote or Very remote.
The 2016 PSS reported that women living outside Major cities at the time of the survey were more
likely to have experienced violence from a current or previous partner since the age of 15, compared
with women living in Major cities. Of women living outside Major cities, 23% (583,000) reported
experiencing partner violence, compared with 15% (1 million) of women living in Major cities.
For men, 6.6% (165,000) living outside Major cities reported experiencing partner violence,
compared with 5.9% (384,000) men living in Major cities (ABS 2018a).
This pattern is consistent with fndings from the Australian Longitudinal Study on Women’s Health,
which found that the overall lifetime prevalence rate of domestic violence was 20% for Major cities,
24% for Inner regional areas and 26% for other rural areas (Dillon et al. 2015).
Police data from selected states show that people living in rural and remote areas are more
likely to experience higher rates of family and domestic violence (BOCSAR 2018; Crime Statistics
Agency 2018).
Compared with metropolitan areas, people living in Australian rural and remote communities have
higher rates of alcohol consumption and greater access to frearms, both of which increase the risk
of partner violence (AIHW 2019a; Campo and Tayton 2015a; Noonan et al. 2017). Living in rural and
remote areas also restricts a victim’s ability to leave a violent relationship and their ability to access
both informal support (from friends and family) and formal support (police, health and domestic
violence support services). Victims in these communities may be deterred from disclosing their
experiences of abuse, due to fear of stigma, shame, and the community view that violence is a
‘family problem’ (Campo and Tayton 2015a).
People in Remote and Very remote Australia are 24 times as likely to be hospitalised for
domestic violence than people in Major cities
In 2016–17, the hospitalisation rate for assault by a spouse or domestic partner was 386 per
100,000 people for people living in Very remote areas, 145 per 100,000 for people living in
Remote areas, and 12 per 100,000 for people living in Major cities, Inner regional, or Outer regional
areas. Females accounted for 80–87% of these hospitalisations (Figure 6.19).
102 Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019
Figure 6 19: Assault hospitalisations where perpetrator was spouse or partner,
adults aged 15 and over, by remoteness of usual place of residence, by sex, 2016–17
Note: These population rates have been calculated using the total population of each remoteness area.
Source: AIHW National Hospital Morbidity Database.
Socioeconomically disadvantaged people
Although family, domestic and sexual violence can occur across all socioeconomic groups, studies
consistently show that the risk of these forms of violence increases as fnancial stress and economic
hardship increases. In addition, these forms of violence can also produce fnancial hardships for
victim-survivors, particularly if there is loss of income and housing as a consequence of these forms
of abuse (Renzetti & Larkin 2009); (Weatherburn 2011).
The ABS Index of Relative Socio-economic Disadvantage (IRSD) ranks areas in Australia based on social
and economic conditions, including income, education, employment, internet access, relationships and
family structure. It is important to note that the IRSD is a summary of people in an area and does not
apply to an individual or dwelling. It refers to the general level of socioeconomic disadvantage of all
the people in the area in which a person lives, not the person themselves (ABS 2008). In the ABS PSS,
the IRSD refers to the area in which the respondent lived at the time of the survey and this may not be
the same area the respondent lived in at the time of the violence. The areas are grouped from most
disadvantaged (lowest socioeconomic areas) to least disadvantaged (highest socioeconomic areas).
Data presented on socioeconomic disadvantage do not identify whether socioeconomic disadvantage
is a risk factor for, or outcome of, experiencing family, domestic and sexual violence. The data improve
understanding of the past experiences of socioeconomically disadvantaged people, as a population.
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
Major cities Inner regional Outer regional Remote Very remote
Rate per 100,000 population
Remoteness
Females
Males
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019 103
Partner violence and emotional abuse
According to the 2016 PSS, women and men living in the lowest socioeconomic areas at the time
of the survey were more likely to have experienced physical and/or sexual violence or emotional
abuse from a partner since the age of 15, compared with women and men living in the highest
socioeconomic areas. For those living in lowest socioeconomic areas:
• 22% of women (366,000) had experienced violence from a current or previous partner,
compared with 13% of women (275,000) living in the highest socioeconomic areas
• 27% of women (445,000) had experienced emotional abuse from a current or previous partner,
compared with 18% of women (375,000) living in the highest socioeconomic areas
• 7.6% of men (135,000) had experienced violence from a current or previous partner, compared
with 6.3% of men (113,000) living in the highest socioeconomic areas
• 17% (303,000) men had experienced emotional abuse from a current or previous partner,
compared with 13% of men (241,000) living in the highest socioeconomic areas (Figure 6.20)
(ABS 2018a).
Individuals living in an area ranked in the lowest 10% (lowest socioeconomic) were 1.5 times as
likely as individuals living in an area ranked in the highest 10% (highest socioeconomic) to have
experienced violence from a current or previous partner.
Figure 6 20: Proportion of people who experienced current and/or previous partner
violence since the age of 15, by sex, by socioeconomic area
Note: ‘Partner violence’ includes physical and/or sexual violence from a current or previous cohabiting partner and does not
include emotional abuse.
Source: ABS 2018a.
5 0
10
15
20
25
30
2 3 4
Per cent
Socioeconomic area
Most disadvantaged Least disadvantaged
Women Men
104 Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019
Sexual violence
Women living in the lowest socioeconomic areas were more likely to have experienced sexual
violence from any perpetrator (both family and domestic violence-related and non-family and
domestic violence-related) since the age of 15, compared with women living in the highest
socioeconomic areas. For those living in the lowest socioeconomic areas, about 21% (343,000)
women had experienced sexual violence, compared with 17% (350,000) women living in the highest
socioeconomic areas. For men, the rates in diﬀerent socioeconomic areas ranged from 4.0% (lowest
socioeconomic areas) to 6.0% (highest socioeconomic areas) (ABS 2017c).
Hospitalisations
In 2016–17, people living in the lowest socioeconomic areas were more than 7 times as likely to be
hospitalised for assault by a spouse or domestic partner (40 per 100,000 population), compared with
those living in the highest socioeconomic areas (6 per 100,000).
About 2 in 5 (42%, or 1,800) hospitalisations for assault perpetrated by a spouse or domestic partner
were of people living in the lowest socioeconomic areas (Figure 6.21).
Figure 6 21: Assault hospitalisations where perpetrator was spouse or partner, adults aged
15 and over, by socioeconomic area of usual place of residence, by sex, 2016–17
Source: AIHW National Hospital Morbidity Database.
5 0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
Rate per 100,000 population
2 3 4
Socioeconomic area
Most disadvantaged Least disadvantaged
Women
Men
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019 105
Burden of disease
The burden of disease from domestic violence for women also varied according to socioeconomic
area. After adjusting for age diﬀerences, rates were 2.5 times as high in the lowest socioeconomic
areas as in the highest socioeconomic areas.
Across all age groups, the attributable burden of disease increased as socioeconomic position
decreased, with the largest disparity seen among women aged 15–24.The rate of burden due to
intimate partner violence for women aged 15–24 was 4.2 times as high for those in the lowest
socioeconomic group, compared with those in the highest (Figure 6.22) (AIHW 2019).
Figure 6.22: Age-specifc attributable DALY rate due to domestic violence (per 1,000 women),
by socioeconomic group, 2015
Source: AIHW forthcoming 2019.
8 6 4 2 0
10
Most disadvantaged 2 3 4 Least disadvantaged
DALY rate (per 1,000 women)
Socioeconomic group
15–24 25–34 35–44
45–54 55–64 65+
106 Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019
7 Family violence among
Indigenous Australians
Key fndings
• Family violence occurs at higher rates in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities
than in the general population.
• In 2017, the majority of Indigenous assault victims recorded by police were victims of family
violence, ranging from 64% (2,700) in New South Wales to 74% (3,900) in the Northern Territory.
• In 2016–17, Indigenous people were 32 times as likely to be hospitalised for family violence,
compared with non-Indigenous people.
• In 2017–18, 16% (48,300) Indigenous children received child protection services.
‘Family violence’ is the preferred term for violence within Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
communities, as it covers the extended family and kinship relationships in which violence can
occur. It remains a critical social policy issue, placing a huge burden on communities, especially on
women and children (Closing the Gap Clearinghouse 2016). The removal from land, and cultural
dispossession over the past 200 years, have resulted in social, economic, physical, psychological
and emotional problems for Indigenous Australians. Family violence against Indigenous Australians
must be understood as both a cause and eﬀect of social disadvantage and intergenerational trauma
(Closing the Gap Clearinghouse 2016).
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia 2018 reported that Indigenous Australians
experienced family violence at higher rates than the general population. Indigenous Australians are
more likely to be hospitalised due to family violence, more likely to be murdered by a family member,
and more likely to have their children removed, compared with non-Indigenous people (AIHW 2018b).
Programs that empower communities to develop local solutions to local issues such as family
violence are showing promising results. For example, the Maranguka project has successfully
demonstrated reductions in police-reported family violence incidents and improvements in
community safety (See Box 7.1).
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019 107
Box 7.1: Maranguka Justice Reinvestment in Bourke
Bourke is a remote town 800km northwest of Sydney. It has a population of 3,000 people, more
than 30% of whom identify as Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander (compared with 2.9% across
New South Wales). Bourke is one of the most disadvantaged communities in Australia, with high
long-term unemployment and family violence, and the highest rate of juvenile convictions in
New South Wales.
In 2013, Bourke topped the state in 6 of the 8 major crime categories (Goh and Holmes 2013);
when compared with United Nations data, the crime rate in Bourke made it more dangerous,
per capita, than any country in the world (Olding and Ralston 2013).
The Maranguka Justice Reinvestment project was set up to help reduce the number of Aboriginal
families experiencing high levels of social disadvantage and rising crime. Justice reinvestment
aims to redirect resources to strategies that can reduce crime and strengthen communities,
such as early intervention, crime prevention and diversionary programs (KPMG Australia & Just
Reinvest NSW Inc. 2018).
Maranguka, meaning ‘caring for others’, is a model of Indigenous self-governance where
members of the Aboriginal community own and lead multidisciplinary teams in partnership
with relevant government and non-government agencies. A critical component of this work is
the need for improved community participation and engagement to develop a common agenda
and shared measures to reduce crime and increase community safety (KPMG Australia & Just
Reinvest NSW Inc. 2018).
Regular meetings were held with Bourke community members to develop a community strategy
for change, ‘Growing our kids up safe, smart and strong’. Working groups were established in 3
areas: early childhood, 8–18-year olds, and the role of men in the community.
In November 2018, KPMG’s impact assessment of the Maranguka Justice Reinvestment Project
between 2015 and 2017 reported that there had been improvements in:
• family strength: a 23% reduction in the number of family violence incidents and a 19%
reduction in family violence reoﬀending incidents reported to police
• youth development: a 31% increase in Year 12 student retention rates and a 38% reduction
in charges across the top 5 juvenile oﬀence categories
• adult empowerment: a 14% reduction in bail breaches and a 42% reduction in days spent
in custody.
KPMG estimated that the economic impact of the project was $3.1 million in 2017 (with operational
costs of $600,000). KPMG says that, if Bourke can sustain just half of these results, an additional
gross impact of $7 million over the next 5 years is achievable (KPMG Australia & Just Reinvest
NSW Inc. 2018).
108 Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019
Prevalence of family violence
The National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Survey (NATSISS), conducted by the ABS, collects
detailed information on the socioeconomic circumstance of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
people. The latest survey (2014–15) showed that 2 in 3 (63%) of Indigenous women and 1 in 3 (35%)
of Indigenous men who had experienced physical violence reported that the perpetrator of the most
recent incident was a family member, including a current or previous partner (ABS 2016b).
Responses to family violence
Police
The ABS collates national statistics on crimes recorded by the police relating to victims and oﬀenders
of family violence (see https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/domestic-violence/family-domestic-sexualviolence-australia-2019/contents/data-sources-monitoring-family-domestic-sexual-violence for
details). Although information on family violence is available from these administrative data sets,
a high proportion of family violence is not disclosed to police.
A large proportion of assault victims are victims of family violence
According to the ABS Recorded Crime—Victims, Australia 2017 data collection, across selected
jurisdictions (New South Wales, South Australia and the Northern Territory):
• 64% (2,700) Indigenous assault victims in New South Wales, 74% (3,900) in the Northern Territory,
and 68% (1,400) in South Australia were victims of family violence-related assault
• perpetrators were commonly identifed as partners or ex-partners (Figure 7.1) (ABS 2018b).
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019 109
Figure 7 1: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander victims of assault, by perpetrator type,
by sex of victim, selected states and territories, 2017
Source: ABS 2018b.
0 10 20 30 40 50
Partner
Parent
Other family member
Ex-partner
Other non-family member
Stranger
Per cent
New South Wales
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
0 10 20 30 40 50
Partner
Parent
Other family member
Ex-partner
Other non-family member
Stranger
Per cent
South Australia
0 10 20 30 40 50
Partner
Parent
Other family member
Ex-partner
Other non-family member
Stranger
Per cent
Northern Territory
110 Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019
Sexual assault victims are more likely to be female
Between 2010 and 2017, the sexual assault victimisation rate for Indigenous Australians rose in
New South Wales and Northern Territory, and fell in Queensland and South Australia. Victims were
predominantly female in all states and territories. Females were:
• 3.4 times as likely as males to be victims in New South Wales (626 female victims, compared with
182 male victims)
• 4.6 times as likely as males to be victims in Queensland (459 female victims, compared with 99
male victims)
• 7.9 times as likely as males to be victims in South Australia (71 female victims compared, with 9
male victims)
• 8.3 times as likely as males to be victims in Northern Territory (183 female victims, compared with
22 male victims) (ABS 2018b).
Perpetrators of sexual assault are usually known to the victim
Perpetrators of sexual assault were likely to be known to the victim. The proportion of Indigenous
victims who knew their perpetrators ranged from 67% (137) in the Northern Territory to 84% (684)
in New South Wales (ABS 2018b).
Indigenous oﬀender rates are higher than non-Indigenous rates
The ABS Recorded Crime—Oﬀenders 2017–18 data collection also contains information about
people committing oﬀences related to family violence. Data for Indigenous oﬀenders are available
for New South Wales, the Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory only. Indigenous
oﬀenders comprised:
• 1 in 5 (19% or 4,700) oﬀenders in New South Wales
• 9 in 10 (88% or 2,600) oﬀenders in the Northern Territory
• 1 in 10 (12% or 72) oﬀenders in the Australian Capital Territory (ABS 2019b).
The oﬀender rate for oﬀences related to family violence was higher for Indigenous oﬀenders than
for non-Indigenous oﬀenders, ranging from:
• 9 times as high in New South Wales (2,557 oﬀenders per 100,000 Indigenous people, compared
with 280 per 100,000 non-Indigenous people)
• 18 times as high in the Northern Territory (4,195 oﬀenders per Indigenous 100,000 people,
compared with 237 oﬀenders per 100,000 non-Indigenous people)
• 9 times as high in the Australian Capital Territory (1,229 oﬀenders per Indigenous 100,000 people,
compared with 145 oﬀenders per 100,000 non-Indigenous people) (ABS 2019b).
Legal
Family and domestic violence protection orders
As noted in Chapter 4, a common legal response to family violence in Australia is to obtain a family
and domestic violence protection order (DVO). Indigenous people are over-represented within the
DVO system, as both applicants and respondents (see Box 7.2).
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019 111
Box 7 2: Impacts of the domestic violence protection order system and the criminal justice
system on Indigenous Australians
A domestic violence order (DVO) is a civil order issued by a court that forbids a perpetrator of
family violence from committing further abuse against the victim. If a DVO is breached, it shifts
from being a civil order to a criminal oﬀence. A Queensland study analysed the DVOs that were
established in civil courts and those that were referred to criminal courts during 2013–14. The
people named as perpetrators in these DVOs were oﬀered the opportunity to self-report their
Indigenous status.
In 2013–14, almost 23,500 people were named as perpetrators in DVOs issued in Queensland,
of whom 1 in 5 (21%) identifed as Indigenous. Indigenous women were slightly more likely to be
named as perpetrators than non-Indigenous women (23% of Indigenous perpetrators and 20% of
non-Indigenous perpetrators). DVOs taken out against Indigenous people were more likely to have
been lodged by the police. Of all DVOs lodged in Queensland, 79% were initiated by the police, and
in cases where the perpetrator identifed as Indigenous, 90% were initiated by the police.
In 2013–14, more than 6,800 people were defendants facing criminal charges for contravening a
DVO in Queensland, of whom 1 in 3 (34%) identifed as Indigenous. The proportion of defendants
found guilty was similar for Indigenous defendants (89%) and all defendants (88%). However,
a higher proportion of Indigenous defendants received a custodial order (43%), compared with
all defendants (27%).
Source: Douglas & Fitzgerald 2018.
Most Indigenous defendants who go to court for family violence oﬀences are found guilty
Data from the ABS Criminal Courts, Australia, 2017–18 data set are available for Indigenous
defendants who had 1 or more family violence cases fnalised in the New South Wales,
Queensland and the Northern Territory criminal courts. Of these Indigenous defendants:
• 76% (4,100 defendants) were found guilty in New South Wales
• 84% (4,100 defendants) were found guilty in Queensland
• 84% (2,600 defendants) were found guilty in the Northern Territory (Figure 7.2) (ABS 2019a).
The proportion of Indigenous defendants found guilty was similar to the proportion of non-Indigenous
defendants found guilty across the same states and territories—74% in New South Wales, 81% in
Queensland and 80% in the Northern Territory (ABS 2019a).
112 Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019
Figure 7.2: Indigenous defendants of family violence oﬀences fnalised in the criminal
courts, by method of fnalisation, selected states and territories, 2017–18
Source: ABS 2019a.
More than half of sexual assault defendants fnalised in Northern Territory courts are
Indigenous
The ABS Criminal Courts 2016–17 data set also includes data for Indigenous defendants whose
cases for 1 or more sexual assault and related oﬀences were fnalised in the Magistrates’ courts in
New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia and the Northern Territory. Of these defendants:
• 10% (286) were Indigenous in New South Wales
• 14% (354) were Indigenous in Queensland
• 4.5% (48) were Indigenous in South Australia
• 65% (130) were Indigenous in the Northern Territory (ABS 2019a).
Hospitalisations
Data on hospitalised injury comes from the AIHW National Hospital Morbidity Database. In 2016–17,
almost 6,300 Indigenous Australians were hospitalised for assault injuries (more than 3,300 females
and 2,700 males). As noted in Chapter 4, the total number of family violence assault hospitalisations
may be underestimated, as in many cases the perpetrator is not specifed.
3 in 4 hospitalised assaults are a result of family violence
In cases where a perpetrator was specifed, almost 1 in 2 (48%, or 1,900) hospitalisations of
Indigenous Australians for assault injuries were due to assault by a spouse or domestic partner,
and 27% (1,000) by another family member.
The reported perpetrator varied by age group. Where the perpetrator was specifed, children aged
0–14 were most commonly assaulted by parents (65 cases). Indigenous Australians aged 65 and over
were most commonly assaulted by other family members (19 cases).
0
1,000
2,000
3,000
4,000
5,000
6,000
NSW Qld NT
Number of defendants
Acquitted
Transfer to other court levels
Proven guilty
Withdrawn by prosecution
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019 113
Indigenous adults are 32 times as likely to be hospitalised for family violence as
non-Indigenous adults
In 2016–17, Indigenous females aged 15 and over were 34 times as likely to be hospitalised for
family violence as non-Indigenous females, with 8 per 1,000 (2,200) Indigenous females hospitalised,
compared with 0.2 in 1,000 (2,400) non-Indigenous females. Indigenous males were 27 times as likely
to be hospitalised for family violence as non-Indigenous males, with 3 per 1,000 (730) Indigenous
males hospitalised, compared with 0.1 per 1,000 (990) non-Indigenous males.
Spouse or domestic partner was most commonly reported as the perpetrator for hospitalisations
of Indigenous females aged 15 and over for assault injuries (62%, or 1,600 cases). The rate of
hospitalisations due to assaults perpetrated by a spouse or domestic partner was highest for women
aged 25 to 34 (10 hospitalisations per 1,000). The rate of hospitalisations due to violence perpetrated
by a family member other than a spouse or domestic partner was highest for women aged 35 to 44
(4 hospitalisations per 1,000).
For hospitalisations of Indigenous males aged 15 and over, a family member other than spouse or
domestic partner was most commonly specifed as the perpetrator (35%, or 460 cases). The rate of
hospitalisations due to assaults perpetrated by another family member was highest for men aged
35 to 44 (3 hospitalisations per 1,000). The rate of hospitalisations due to assaults perpetrated by a
spouse or domestic partner was also highest for men aged 35 to 44 (2 per 1,000) (Figure 7.3).
Figure 7 3: Rate of hospitalisations for family violence assaults among Indigenous
Australians, by relationship to perpetrator, by sex, 2016–17
Source: AIHW National Hospital Morbidity Database.
Most family violence occurs in the home
Indigenous people hospitalised for assault by a spouse, domestic partner or family member were
most likely to have been assaulted in their home. Where a location of assault was specifed, 80%
(490) assaults perpetrated by a spouse or domestic partner, and 75% (250) assaults perpetrated by
another family member, occurred in their home.
8 6 4 2 0
10
12
0–1
4 15–24 25–34 35–44 45–54 55–64 65+
Rate per 1,000 Rate per 1,000
Age group
Females
Spouse or domestic partner Family member Spouse or domestic partner Family member
8 6 4 2 0
10
12
0 –14 15–24 25–34 35–44 45–54 55–64 65+
Age group
Males
114 Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019
Most family violence involves bodily force
About 54% (1,200) Indigenous females and 42% (300) Indigenous males hospitalised for assault by a
spouse, domestic partner or family member were assaulted by bodily force. About a third (36%) of
females were assaulted with an object: 25% (550) of whom were assaulted with a blunt object and
11% (240) with a sharp object. About half (51%) of males were assaulted with an object, including 32%
(230) who were assaulted with a sharp object, and 19% (140) with a blunt object. Strangulation was
specifed by 14 Indigenous females as the cause of their injuries.
Head and/or neck injuries are the most common injuries inﬂicted by a family member
In 2016–17, of hospitalisations of Indigenous Australians for assault injuries perpetrated by a spouse,
domestic partner or family member, 64% (1,400) females and 55% (400) males experienced injuries to
the head or neck. This included 160 females and 50 males hospitalised for brain injury (Figure 7.4).
Figure 7 4: Physical assault hospitalisations among Indigenous Australians where the
perpetrator was a spouse or partner, adults aged 15 and over, by type of injury, by sex,
2016–17
Source: AIHW National Hospital Morbidity Database.
Indigenous Australians living in Remote and very remote areas are more likely to be
hospitalised due to family violence
In Major cities in 2016–17:
• 2.8 in 1,000 (or 280) Indigenous females aged 15 and over were hospitalised for injuries due to
assault by a family member, compared with 4.7 in 1,000 (or 530) Indigenous females living in
Inner and outer regional areas and 26.6 in 1,000 (or 1,400) Indigenous females living in Remote
and very remote areas.
• 0.9 in 1,000 (or 90) Indigenous males aged 15 and over living were hospitalised for assault injuries
perpetrated by a family member, compared with 1.8 in 1,000 (or 200) living in Inner and outer
regional areas and 8.8 in 1,000 (or 440) living in Remote and very remote areas (Figure 7.5).
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Head and/or neck Trunk Shoulder, arm
or hand
Hip, leg
or foot
Burns
Per cent
Injury
Female Male
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019 115
Figure 7 5: Family violence assault hospitalisations of Indigenous Australians aged 15 and
over in 2016–17 (rate per 1,000)
Source: AIHW National Hospital Morbidity Database.
Impacts and outcomes of family violence
Family violence has been associated a range of negative health impacts, including higher rates of
miscarriage, pre-term birth and low birthweight, as well as other long-term health consequences for
women and children (WHO 2011). Family, domestic and sexual violence 2018 reported that there are
limited data on the impacts and outcomes of family violence in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
communities, particularly for children.
Disease burden from domestic violence is higher for Indigenous women than for non-Indigenous
women, due in part to the increased burden from anxiety, depression, alcohol use, early pregnancy
loss, self-harm, suicides and, particularly, homicides, compared with non-Indigenous women
(Ayre et al. 2016). The Aboriginal Families Study research project provides insights into the health
and wellbeing of Aboriginal children and their mothers living in South Australia (see Box 7.3).
A component of this study was to investigate the eﬀects of stressful events on Aboriginal women
during pregnancy and after the birth of their babies (Weetra et al. 2016).
Usual area of residence
Major cities
Regional areas
Remote areas
2 8
4 7
26 5
0 9
1 8
8 8
116 Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019
Box 7 3: The Aboriginal Families Study
A team of 12 Aboriginal researchers recruited women who had an Aboriginal baby between
July 2001 and June 2013 to take part in the study. The study was conducted as a partnership
between academic researchers at the Murdoch Children’s Research Institute, the University of
Adelaide and the Aboriginal Health Council of South Australia Inc. An Aboriginal Advisory Group
guided the development and conduct of the study.
Women were invited to complete a questionnaire when their baby was between 4 and 12
months old. The women and children in the study were from urban, regional and remote areas
of South Australia, representing 1 in 4 Aboriginal women who had a baby in South Australia at
this time, with a mean age of 25 years (range 15–43).
A total of 344 women completed the questionnaire about their pregnancy and birthing care,
and the support they received from services after their baby was born. The questionnaire
included measures of stressful events (such as serious illness or injury), and social health
issues (such as housing problems, trouble with police, and drug and alcohol problems) during
pregnancy and maternal psychological distress were assessed using the Kessler-5 scale.
The study had a high level of participation in regional and remote communities and from younger
women. The age of the women who took part in the study was similar to the maternal age of
women in the general population, which strengthens the generalisability of the study’s fndings.
Source: Weetra et al. 2016.
What do we know about Indigenous mothers in Australia?
Of all the mothers who gave birth in 2016, Indigenous mothers were, on average, younger than
non-Indigenous mothers (25.9 years compared with 30.7), and 7 times as likely to be teenage
mothers (14% compared with 2%). They were 14 times as likely to live in Remote and Very Remote
areas, compared with non-Indigenous mothers (AIHW 2018a).
Family violence is associated with high psychological distress in Indigenous mothers
The Aboriginal Families Study identifed high rates of social health issues aﬀecting Aboriginal women
and families during pregnancy, and high levels of associated psychological distress after the birth of
their babies. More than 1 in 2 (56%) of women had experienced 3 or more stressful events and social
health issues during pregnancy, and more than 1 in 4 (27%) had experienced 5–12 issues.
A large number of women reported experiences of family or community conﬂict:
• 1 in 3 (30%, or 103) had been scared by other people’s behaviour while they were pregnant
• 1 in 4 (27%, or 90) had left home due to a family argument
• 1 in 6 (16%, or 53) had been physically assaulted.
One in 4 women (25%, or 83) reported high to very high psychological distress after the birth of their
baby. This is markedly higher than estimates of maternal psychological distress among the general
population (Weetra et al. 2016).
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019 117
More Indigenous women are killed by partners than Indigenous men
The National Homicide Monitoring Program recorded 44 Indigenous victims of domestic homicide
in 34 incidents over the 2 years between 2014–15 and 2015–16. Of the 44 Indigenous victims,
there were:
• 19 victims of intimate partner homicide
• 10 victims of flicide
• 1 victim of parricide
• 6 victims of silicide
• 8 victims of other family homicide incidents.
More than half (16) of the 26 Indigenous female victims of domestic homicide were killed by an
intimate partner. There were 18 Indigenous male victims of domestic homicide, with 3 Indigenous
men killed by an intimate partner. Indigenous male victims were most commonly killed by another
family member (7 victims) or by a parent (5 victims) (AIC unpublished) (Figure 7.6).
Figure 7 6: Indigenous domestic homicide victims, by type of homicide and sex of victim,
2014–15 to 2015–16
Source: AIC unpublished.
Indigenous children and young people
Indigenous children are especially vulnerable to the direct and indirect impacts of family violence,
which contributes to the over-representation of Indigenous children in Australia’s child protection
systems (SNAICC et al. 2017). Indigenous children and young people may face additional challenges
as a result of multiple disadvantages, such as loss of culture, racism and discrimination (ACYP 2018).
8 6 4 2 0
10
12
14
16
Intimate partner
homicide
Filicide Parricide Siblicide Other family
incidents
Number
Type of homicide
Female Male
118 Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019
Indigenous children are 8 times as likely to receive child protection services as
non-Indigenous children
In 2017–18, 16% (48,300) Indigenous children received child protection services. Infants aged under
12 months were most likely (192 per 1,000) to receive child protection services, and adolescents
aged 15 to 17 were least likely (113 per 1,000) (AIHW 2019b). The rate of Indigenous children
receiving child protection services was 164 per 1,000 Indigenous children, compared with 20 per
1,000 non-Indigenous children (AIHW 2019b).
As at 30 June 2018:
• more than 1 in 3 (36%) of children on care and protection orders were Indigenous, despite
making up only 6% of the Australian population aged 10–17
• there were almost 17,800 (60 per 1,000) Indigenous children in out-of-home care.
Between 2013–14 and 2017–18, the rate of Indigenous children receiving child protection services
increased from 140 to 164 per 1,000.
Indigenous Australians with disability
Indigenous Australians are more than twice as likely as non-Indigenous Australians to have disability.
Among the Indigenous population aged 15 and over, 45% reported having disability (ABS 2016b),
compared with 18% in the total Australian population (ABS 2016a).
Further analysis of the NATSISS has been undertaken to examine the prevalence of family violence
among Indigenous Australians with disability. The NATSISS asks participants aged 15 and over
about long-term health conditions, restrictions and impairments and the impacts that these have
on everyday activities. A person is considered to have disability if they have at least 1 of a list of
limitations, restrictions or impairments, which has lasted, or is likely to last, for at least 6 months
and restricts their everyday activities (ABS 2016d).This includes severe and profound disabilities
that aﬀect many areas of daily life; moderate and mild disabilities; those that aﬀect only particular
activities such as schooling; and disabilities that do not involve a specifc restriction.
More than half of Indigenous Australians who experience family violence have disability
Indigenous people who reported experiencing physical violence by a family member in the past 12
months were more likely to have disability. Among Indigenous Australians who reported physical
violence from a family member, more than half (54%, or 17,700) had a disability. More than half
(56%, or 12,800) women and just under half (49%, or 4,800) men who experienced physical violence
from a family member in the last 12 months had disability. However, this result should be interpreted
with caution, due to small sample sizes (ABS 2016c).
Specialist homelessness services
Family violence is 1 of the main reasons Indigenous clients seek assistance
About 65,200 (25%) of the 288,800 clients who accessed SHS in 2017–18 were Indigenous.
Of these Indigenous clients:
• 25% (15,900) cited family violence as their main reason for seeking assistance
• 28% (18,300) requested assistance for family violence.
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019 119
8 Key data gaps and data
development activities
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia 2018 identifed various data gaps which, if flled,
could strengthen the evidence base and support the reduction and prevention of family, domestic
and sexual violence in Australia. Accurate and timely statistics play a vital role in developing and
implementing eﬀective policies.
Although legislation, policies and practices vary across the states and territories, there is a national
eﬀort to improve data collection and reporting. This chapter explores the work currently under way
to fll data gaps, and discusses the opportunities to strengthen existing data and develop new data
sources. This chapter does not extend to a review of gaps in the broader family, domestic and sexual
violence research drawn on throughout this report.
There are notable information gaps on various aspects of family, domestic and sexual violence,
primarily due to:
• inconsistent identifcation, capturing and counting procedures between diﬀerent data sets and
jurisdictions
• limited information about vulnerable populations who come into contact with justice, health,
welfare and other support services (for example, primary health care; emergency department
care; drug and alcohol services; mental health services; corrections, or income support)
• lack of data about pathways, impacts and outcomes for victims, perpetrators and their children.
Further information on specifc data gaps are outlined in this section.
Prevalence
Vulnerable populations
This report draws together additional information on vulnerable populations (see chapters 6 and 7)
and highlights the need for improved data capture, quality, comparability and reporting for these
groups. For example, it can be difcult to obtain large representative samples of at-risk populations
in national surveys and the data become less reliable and robust when small samples from specifc
populations are analysed. The new Indigenous survey referred to in Family, domestic and sexual
violence in Australia 2018, Mayi Kuwayu: the National Study of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
Wellbeing, is a promising development in this area. This study is being developed by and with
Indigenous people.
120 Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019
Complex forms of family, domestic and sexual violence
Family, domestic and sexual violence can include acts of physical, sexual and emotional violence
across a range of familial and non-familial relationships. Beyond the scope of these forms of
violence are other experiences, many of which involve practices or behaviours outside the common
understanding of physical, sexual and emotional violence. These can be referred to as complex forms
of violence, and are often more difcult to identify and address. They include practices such as forced
marriage, and trafcking of women and children for sexual exploitation.
National data about complex forms of violence are limited. Box 8.1 presents examples based mainly
on experiences from culturally and linguistically diverse groups in Australia, but these forms of
violence may be found in many Australian communities.
Box 8 1: Examples of complex forms of family, domestic and sexual violence
Dowry abuse and dowry-related violence
‘Dowry’ is a cultural practice referring to money, property or gifts typically transferred by a
woman’s family to her husband upon marriage. The practice is common in the Indian, South East
Asian, Chinese, African and Middle-Eastern communities, and the total value of the dowry can be
a signifcant fnancial amount (State of Victoria 2016).
Community advocates have raised concern that some West Asian-born men are using their
status as Australian citizens or residents to extort money from the women they are marrying,
with threats and violence if their demands are not met (Singh and Sidhu 2018). Misuse of this
practice has been linked to physical, emotional and fnancial abuse as well as to suicide and
murder, and is now recognised as a form of domestic violence. In Australia, there is little reliable
data about the nature and extent of dowry abuse and dowry-attributed violence.
Due to this growing concern about dowry practices, the Australian Government launched a
Senate inquiry into the practice of dowry in June 2018. The inquiry will examine the incidence
of dowry abuse in Australia and its links to family, domestic and sexual violence. It is being
conducted by the Legal and Constitutional Aﬀairs References Committee, with its primary focus
on the nature of dowry as a cultural practice, and the adequacy of current Australian policy
settings and legal frameworks regarding dowry and dowry abuse (Parliament of Australia 2018).
Forced marriage
As noted in Chapter 6, most reported victims of forced marriage are young women and girls.
Limited information and data exist on the practice, as most forced marriages take place discreetly
in families, groups, communities or societies. The hidden and criminal nature of forced marriage
means that the majority of these marriages are not legally registered. This makes it difcult to
compile reliable statistics on how many people are subjected to forced marriages in Australia.
Trafcking in women and children for sexual exploitation
Trafcking in women and children for the purposes of sexual exploitation is another form of
complex violence where there are signifcant data gaps and ongoing issues with ascertaining
prevalence in Australia.
continued
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019 121
Box 8.1 (continued): Examples of complex forms of family, domestic and sexual violence
Each year, the United States Department of State publishes a Trafcking in Persons Report that
analyses international governments’ prosecution, protection, and prevention eﬀorts in respect
of human trafcking. The 2018 report notes that in Australia some women, mainly from Asia,
Eastern Europe and Africa, are coerced into prostitution while others are held in captivity and
subjected to physical and sexual violence, manipulated through illegal drugs, obliged to pay oﬀ
unexpected or inﬂated debts to trafckers, or otherwise deceived about working arrangements
(US Department of State 2018).
Research into the extent of human trafcking and slavery victimisation in Australia has also been
carried out by the AIC. The report estimated that the number of human trafcking and slavery
victims in Australia was substantially higher than detected. Using a new statistical technique,
they estimated that from 2015–16 to 2016–17 there were between 1,300 and 1,900 human
trafcking and slavery victims in Australia, suggesting that for every victim detected, there are
4 undetected victims (Lyneham, Dowling and Bricknell 2019).
Female genital mutilation/cutting
Female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C) is recognised by the United Nations as a form of family,
domestic and sexual violence (WHO 2008). Although it is difcult to obtain accurate data on its
prevalence in Australia, the AIHW estimates that 53,000 women and girls living in Australia in 2017
have undergone FGM/C (AIHW 2019). See Chapter 6 for further details. The AIHW is undertaking
further work to investigate diﬀerent data sources for reporting on FGM/C in Australia.
Intimate partner violence of women associated with organised crime syndicates
There are a lack of data and ongoing challenges in determining the extent of intimate partner
violence experienced by women associated with organised crime in Australia. Women generally
become associated with criminal gangs through ex-partners, current partners, family members,
or through the need to obtain drugs. These women are often subject to sexual practices, often
involving multiple partners.
Typically, gang culture is misogynistic and normalises behaviours such as gang rape and
multi-perpetrator physical and sexual violence. Often women experiencing this violence do not
seek police protection or assistance, out of fear of retribution from gang members. In addition,
the women associated with criminal gangs are commonly reluctant to report their abuse due
to fear being implicated for assisting their partner in criminal activities. An estimate of the
prevalence of women experiencing intimate partner violence from members of organised
crime syndicates in Australia is therefore difcult to ascertain (Salter 2014).
Prolonged incest
There is a lack of data on prolonged incest, but recent literature sources note that such cases
typically involve decades of sexual abuse, often result in pregnancies, and regularly include
ongoing violence and death threats. There is often a lack of visibility for victims of prolonged
incest (Middleton 2012; Salter 2013).
122 Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019
Responses
Specialist family, domestic and sexual violence services
Victims of family, domestic and sexual violence may access a range of services that span the justice,
mainstream health and specialist family, domestic and sexual violence service sectors. Currently,
there are limited national data about access to, and impact of, services aimed at reducing family
violence and providing coordinated responses for victims and perpetrators. Key data gaps include:
• the profle of services
• characteristics of clients (for example, demographic characteristics of victims and perpetrators;
presence of co-occurring factors, such as mental health problems, drug and alcohol use)
• outcomes of specialised services and interventions for victims, perpetrators and children.
The Department of Social Services and the AIHW are working with several states and territories
to explore options for improving the capture of family, domestic and sexual violence service
information.
Financial support
There are limited national data on the fnancial impacts of family, domestic and sexual violence on
individuals and the community. There is also limited knowledge of the assistance provided to victims
and perpetrators by employers and workplaces or through fnancial counselling services.
Several fnancial institutions, including the major national banks, help clients experiencing family and
domestic violence. These services include debt waiving, grants and fnancial counselling. Institutions
oﬀering retail banking services may also be able to detect incidents of fnancial abuse. While some
data are publicly available from banks about the number of clients assisted, the services oﬀered vary
widely between institutions. Data between institutions are not comparable, and national estimates of
those assisted are not available.
Primary health care
Primary health-care settings can provide prevention activities and services to people aﬀected by
family, domestic and sexual violence. General practitioners and community health centres can be a
primary point of contact for people experiencing family, domestic and sexual violence, particularly
when violence includes children (Gear et al. 2016). However, there are limited data on these types
of violence in primary health-care settings. The AIHW is exploring ways to better capture family,
domestic and sexual violence in this sector.
Other specialised health services
Victims and perpetrators of family, domestic and sexual violence may also access specialised health
services such as alcohol and other drug treatment services, and mental health services. Currently,
it is not possible to identify in national data collections those people accessing these services who
are exposed to or needing assistance with family, domestic and sexual violence issues.
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019 123
Police and justice responses
The ABS is working closely with states and territories to improve national comparability of police
and justice system responses to family, domestic and sexual violence. Currently, there are no
uniform processes in police and justice data to identify family and domestic violence across all
state and territories. There are also limited published data on apprehended violence orders, legal
aid and family court responses. The AIHW is working with the Department of Social Services and
state and territory governments to report against the National Outcome Standards for Perpetrator
Interventions (NOSPI) to better understand some of the police and justice system responses to
family, domestic and sexual violence (see Box 8.3).
Perpetrator interventions
Perpetrator intervention programs try to reduce the risk, and change the behaviours, of family
violence perpetrators. However, there are limited data to monitor and report on perpetrator
intervention programs nationally. A range of organisations and services are involved in perpetrator
intervention, including the police, courts, corrections, perpetrator oﬀender programs and child
protection services.
One of the national priorities of the Third Action Plan 2016–19 of the National Plan is to ensure that
perpetrators are accountable across all these systems and services. All Australian governments have
committed to improve perpetrator accountability and to develop national standards for perpetrator
interventions. In 2016, ANROWS launched a Perpetrator Interventions Research Stream to improve
the evidence base and hold perpetrators to account. For more details, see www.anrows.org.au/
perpetrator-interventions-research/.
The AIHW is working with the Department of Social Services to measure the outcomes achieved by
perpetrator interventions across Australia and to drive further improvements in data collection.
See Box 8.3 for more information on progress in developing national indicators for perpetrator
intervention services.
Presentation of data
National Data Collection and Reporting Framework
The National Data Collection and Reporting Framework (DCRF) has been developed by the ABS to
provide a systematic way for organising data about experiences of family, domestic and sexual
violence. It also provides general guidelines for collecting this information with reference to existing
data standards. Where implemented, collection of these data items will help ensure that data are
collected consistently across organisations (ABS 2014).
124 Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019
Locally-relevant data
The ability to identify local areas of high risk for family, domestic and violence is particularly relevant
for policy planners and service providers seeking to better target strategies, resources and programs.
For example, police data on family and domestic violence incidents are available by local areas in
New South Wales and Victoria (Crime Statistics Agency 2018; NSW Bureau of Crime Statistics and
Research 2018). However, reliable estimates showing geographical variation are often not available.
The AIHW will continue working with other statistical agencies and data custodians to collect and
report data at lower levels of geography, wherever appropriate and useful.
AIHW data development activities
Improving data collection
The AIHW is undertaking a range of activities to improve the identifcation and collection of family,
domestic and sexual violence in the following data collections: National Non-Admitted Patient
Emergency Department Care; Specialist Homelessness Services; National Perinatal Data Collection;
and the Child Protection National Minimum Data Set. See Box 8.2 for further information on the
processes for amending the National Minimum Data Set (NMDS) for these collections.
Box 8 2: Amending existing national AIHW data collections to better identify family,
domestic and sexual violence
A National Minimum Data Set (NMDS) is a minimum set of data elements agreed for mandatory
collection and reporting at a national level. An NMDS is based on a national agreement to collect
uniform data and to supply it as part of the national collection, but does not preclude agencies
and service providers from collecting additional data to meet their own specifc needs.
The AIHW is responsible for multiple NMDSs across the health; welfare; homelessness and
housing; early childhood; and disability sectors, some of which have links and commonalities
with family, domestic and sexual violence. As such, there are opportunities to strengthen and
build on the evidence base by improving the identifcation of family, domestic and sexual
violence in many key data collections.
To amend the NMDS, there must be agreement by each Australian state and territory (and
where relevant Commonwealth) government authority, and subsequently by the relevant
data governance committees, and a mandated mechanism to collect the data. The AIHW is
working with the National Health Data and Information Standards Committee and the Strategic
Committee for National Health Information to explore ways of amending several health NMDSs
to better capture family, domestic and sexual violence data.
Timeframes for modifying NMDSs to include new items vary, but typically may take years. Not all
NMDSs and existing collections have the same governance structures and it can be challenging
to make nationally consistent changes.
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019 125
Hospitals and emergency departments
Hospitals and emergency departments can be an important frst contact for people experiencing
family, domestic and sexual violence. Although there are national data for reporting on hospital
admissions for assault injuries due to family, domestic and sexual violence, there are limited data
for identifying these presentations to emergency departments. The AIHW is working with states and
territories to explore ways to improve the national collection of emergency department presentations
related to family, domestic and sexual violence.
The AIHW currently collects and reports on emergency department presentations in public hospitals as
part of the National Non-admitted Patient Emergency Department Care Database. The recent inclusion
of diagnosis information in this database provides an opportunity to use nationwide emergency
department data for injury surveillance. However, the lack of information on the cause of injury means
it is not currently possible to identify assault injuries due to family, domestic and sexual violence.
Specialist Homelessness Services Collection
The Specialist Homelessness Services Collection (SHSC) includes family and domestic violence as a
reason for seeking homelessness services. However, it has not been possible to diﬀerentiate between
victims and perpetrators in the collection. The AIHW has been working to amend the data collection
to enable the identifcation of a victim or perpetrator. Amendments are also being made to collect
information about the proportion of individuals turned away from Specialist Homelessness Services
who are experiencing family and domestic violence. The collection of these new data items will begin
in July 2019, with data expected to be available for reporting in 2020.
Child Protection National Minimum Data Set
The Child Protection National Minimum Data Set (CP NMDS) is an annual data collection containing
information on children aged 0–17 who come into contact with state and territory departments
responsible for child protection. The data set includes details about notifcations, investigations and
substantiations; care and protection orders; funded out-of-home care; authorised carers including
foster and relative/kinship carers; and some limited information on intensive family support services.
The collection has data on the main type of substantiated abuse or neglect that has occurred,
including physical abuse, sexual abuse, emotional abuse or neglect, and their co-occurrence.
However, it does not have information on the child’s parents, or where domestic violence between
caregivers may be a specifc factor in the child’s case. The AIHW is working with states/territories on
options for improving this identifcation in national data.
National Perinatal Data Collection
The AIHW is working with the National Perinatal Data Development Committee to amend the
Perinatal National Best Endeavours Data Set to include family violence information in the antenatal
period. Development of an indicator on family violence screening during pregnancy is currently in
progress, with expected implementation in the data set from 1 July 2020.
126 Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019
Indicator development for perpetrator interventions
The National Outcome Standards for Perpetrator Interventions (NOSPI) measure perpetrator
outcomes across the health, justice, corrections and specialist services sectors against key indicators
and identifes areas for improvement. National reporting against the NOSPI are currently being
undertaken by DSS in collaboration with the AIHW and state and territory governments (DSS 2018).
The 27 NOSPI indicators were developed by the AIHW in consultation with states and territories and
measure diﬀerent aspects of the perpetrator accountability system. Some of the NOSPI indicators
use existing data from states and territories, as well as data from the ABS’s Criminal Courts, Australia
publication. Others will require data development before they can be reported. Development work
is underway to increase the number of indicators that can be reported in the future. See Box 8.3 for
progress on reporting.
Box 8 3: National Outcome Standards for Perpetrator Interventions indicators
Data from selected states and territories were available for reporting on 7 indicators that were
published in the frst National Outcomes Standards for Perpetrator Interventions: baseline report
(NOSPI baseline report) in August 2018.
The following 4 indicators were reported using data from the ABS’s Criminal Courts, Australia
publication:
• Average time from breach of an order to court outcome for family violence and sexual assault
• Proportion of sexual assault charges that result in convictions
• Proportion of reported breached family violence intervention orders that have a further legal
consequence
• Average time from charge to court outcome for family violence breach of order and sexual
assault.
The remaining 3 indicators were reported using data from states and territories:
• Proportion of police-attended family violence incidents where police issued family violence
intervention orders on behalf of the victim
• Proportion of perpetrators assessed as suitable and ready to commence community-based
behaviour-change programs, but who waited less than 1, 1–3 and 4–6 months
• Proportion of perpetrators who commence a behaviour-change program and the proportion
of perpetrators who complete a behaviour-change program.
Data in the NOSPI baseline report are for a 12-month period (July 2015 to June 2016). Given the
current quality of available data, the report does not make national comparisons (over time) or
between states/territories. Findings from the report show that responses to family and domestic
violence are carried out diﬀerently in states and territories according to diﬀerent defnitions and
legislative practices. Key fndings of the NOSPI baseline report include:
continued
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019 127
Box 8.3 (continued): National Outcome Standards for Perpetrator Interventions indicators
Number of intervention orders issued by police varies across states and territories
Data about the proportion of intervention orders issued by police at family and domestic violence
incidents can illustrate the responsiveness of the police and justice systems to perpetrators of
family and domestic violence. The NOSPI report noted considerable variability across states and
territories in the issuing of intervention orders. As such, the proportion of family and domestic
violence incidents where police attended and issued intervention orders varied greatly, ranging
from 18% in the Northern Territory to 61% in Tasmania, across selected jurisdictions.
Rates of commencement and completion for behaviour-change programs vary
Behaviour-change programs aim to help perpetrators to stop their violent actions. Data can be
used to measure how responsive programs are to those who use violence. There is substantial
variation in rates of commencement and completion for behaviour-change programs across
state and territory courts and corrective services systems. In 2015–16, across selected states
and territories:
• 49% to 100% of perpetrators found suitable commenced a program
• 45% to 68% of perpetrators assessed as suitable completed a program.
Justice system responses are crucial to perpetrator interventions
Legal and justice responses to perpetrators are a powerful tool that can interrupt and address
violence against women and children. Data about the duration between diﬀerent stages of
perpetrator interventions can be used to measure how swiftly the justice system responds to
family and domestic violence. The timeliness of court processes also reﬂects how quickly the
system responds, to ensure perpetrators face appropriate justice and legal consequences.
Court processes vary and the average duration from initiation of court procedures to fnalisation
in magistrates’ courts across the states and territories ranged from:
• 160 days (median duration of 87 days) to 556 days (median duration of 7.7 days) for breach of
violence orders
• 130 days (median duration of 103 days) to 205 days (median duration of 141 days) for sexual
assault and related oﬀences.
Most defendants who breached violence orders were found guilty
Across selected states and territories, the proportion of defendants who were found guilty for a
breach of violence order in the Magistrates’ Court ranged from 76% to 97%. Of the defendants who
were found guilty for breach of a family violence order, the proportion who received a custodial
sentence ranged from 8.9% to 62%. The proportion of defendants found guilty for sexual assault
and related oﬀences ranged from 16% in magistrates’ courts to 75% in higher courts.
Source: DSS 2018.
128 Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019
Data linkage projects
The AIHW works with governments and researchers to link de-identifed data from various sources.
Such privacy-preserving linkage has great potential to better understand clients’ pathways through
the Australian health and welfare system, further identify at-risk populations and risk factors, and
explore outcomes. Examples of current work activities include linking state/territory health and
welfare data with Commonwealth data such as Centrelink, Medical Benefts Schedule (MBS) and
Pharmaceutical Benefts Schedule (PBS) data.
These linkages may provide opportunities to further develop family, domestic and sexual violence
data. However, such linkages are contingent on being able to identify the at-risk population (those
exposed to family, domestic and sexual violence) in various key datasets, such as police, hospital or
child protection data, to monitor their service use and outcomes over time.
Other data development activities
Since the release of Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia 2018, one of the major data
development activities was the publication of the ABS Directory of family, domestic and sexual
violence statistics in December 2018.
Directory of family, domestic and sexual violence statistics, 2018
The new directory is a resource to assist researchers, policy analysts and health professionals to
better understand the range of family, domestic, and sexual violence data available. It builds on
the previous 2013 edition, and includes updated information on family and domestic violence
data sources, plus new information on sexual violence data sources.
The directory describes the core details about each statistical collection and provides
information about the key organisations and agencies that publish family, domestic,
and sexual violence statistics. Further information is available at
www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/[email protected]/Lookup/4533.0Main+Features502013.
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019 129
Appendix: State and territory government policies
on family, domestic and sexual violence
State and territory governments have developed a range of initiatives in response to the National
Plan to Reduce Violence against Women and their Children—2010–2022. These span a number of
areas, from primary prevention to perpetrator interventions, and operate across a range of sectors,
including health, justice and community services. State and territory initiatives are outlined in the
following strategies and action plans.
New South Wales
The Domestic and Family Violence Blueprint for Reform 2016–2021 sets out the directions and
actions to reform the domestic violence system. The frst annual report card outlines the work that
has been done to:
• improve behaviour-change interventions for high-risk oﬀenders
• develop and launch a violence prevention and early intervention strategy
• build capacity of the community-based men’s behaviour-change sector
• reduce apprehended domestic violence order breaches (New South Wales Government 2017).
Victoria
Work is continuing towards implementing all 227 recommendations of the Royal Commission into
Family Violence. The Rolling Action Plan 2017–2020 is the frst phase of the Victorian Government’s
10-year reform agenda to end family violence and it identifes actions under the following initiatives:
• prevention
• support and safety hubs
• safe and stable housing
• specialist family violence courts
• perpetrator interventions
• capacity building
• information sharing.
The Rolling Action Plans are delivered approximately every 3 years (Victorian Government 2017).
Queensland
Policy initiatives are guided by the Domestic and Family Violence Prevention Strategy 2016–2026.
As at 30 June 2017, achievements included:
• law reforms to hold perpetrators to account and protect victims
• increases in maximum penalties for breaches of domestic violence orders
• an increase in services across Queensland
• the introduction of special leave entitlements (Queensland Government 2015).
130 Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019
Western Australia
In 2015–16, Western Australia launched the Freedom from Fear Action Plan 2015, which outlined
20 actions across 5 priority areas, to:
• promote understanding and awareness about family and domestic violence
• target communities and populations at greatest risk
• trial and evaluate innovative approaches to perpetrator intervention
• promote consistent quality practice in engaging and responding to men who use violence
• increase the capacity and authority of the service system to stop perpetrators of family and
domestic violence when they are identifed.
The focus of the plan is to increase the safety of women and children who are at risk of experiencing
family and domestic violence, by strengthening integrated, accountable and eﬀective interventions
for perpetrators of violence and abuse (Government of Western Australia 2015).
South Australia
The Women’s Safety Strategy 2011–2022 outlines a vision to reduce violence against women through
a more strategic and comprehensive approach. Multiple reforms have been implemented under the
strategy, ranging from early intervention and community awareness initiatives, to law reform and
system improvements. Some of the initiatives include:
• Don’t Cross the Line (an anti-violence community awareness campaign)
• The Focus Schools Program
• Family Safety Framework
• Sustainable Economic Futures (South Australia: Ofce for Women 2011).
Tasmania
Safe Homes, Safe Families: Tasmania’s Family Violence Action Plan 2015–2020 is the Tasmanian
Government’s coordinated, whole-of-government action plan to respond to family violence.
Since its launch and implementation, achievements have included:
• the establishment of a Safe Families Coordination Unit
• implementation of Respectful Relationships across all government schools
• extending counselling services for children and young people experiencing family violence
(Tasmanian Government 2015).
Northern Territory
The Northern Territory’s Domestic, Family and Sexual Violence Reduction Framework 2018–2028
will be implemented over 10 years through a series of rolling action plans. The priorities of the First
Action Plan will focus on:
• challenging the values, norms and attitudes and behaviours that drive family, domestic and
sexual violence
• understanding the role of key early responders and building their capacity
• strengthening the specialist service sector
• building a stronger shared understanding of the needs of victims and perpetrators
(Northern Territory Government 2018).
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019 131
Australian Capital Territory
The Australian Capital Territory Government Response to Family Violence was released in June 2016.
The government response detailed 38 separate commitments and identifed the following priority
actions:
• appointment of a Coordinator-General for Family Safety to provide leadership across government
and community
• design and implementation of a Family Safety Hub to improve service integration and coordination
• development of a skilled and educated workforce responding to those experiencing family violence.
Signifcant progress has been made across government and community, with the majority of
commitments fully implemented (ACT Government 2016).
132 Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019
Acknowledgments
This report was written by Ms Ann Hunt, Ms Amy Benson, Ms Amy Duong, Ms Anika Merkley,
Dr Veronique Thouroude and Ms Maddison Howlett from the Australian Institute of Health
and Welfare (AIHW), with assistance from Ms Karen Hobson, Ms Kate Riley Sandler and
Ms Vanessa Prescott.
The contributions of reviewers from the AIHW, including Ms Louise York, Mr Matthew James,
Dr Fadwa Al-Yaman, Mr Geoﬀ Neideck and Mr Barry Sandison, are also acknowledged.
The contributions of funders, including the Department of Social Services, the Victorian Department
of Premier and Cabinet, the New South Wales Department of Premier and Cabinet, the Department
of the Prime Minister and Cabinet, and the Australian Capital Territory Justice and Community Safety
Directorate are gratefully acknowledged, as is the expert advice provided by the advisory group
established for the report, whose members are:

Dr Heather Nancarrow	Australia’s National Research Organisation for Women’s Safety
Dr Chloe Parton	Australia’s National Research Organisation for Women’s Safety
Mr Will Milne Ms Anthea Saﬂekos Ms Jane Pepper	Australian Bureau of Statistics Australian Bureau of Statistics ACT Justice & Community Safety Directorate
Dr Samantha Bricknell	Australian Institute of Criminology
Mr Anthony Morgan	Australian Institute of Criminology
Ms Kelly Hand	Australian Institute of Family Studies
Ms Lixia Qu	Australian Institute of Family Studies
Ms Alexis Diamond	Department of Social Services
Mr Adam Brooker	Attorney-General’s Department
Ms Esther Bogaart	Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet
Ms Kirsti Van Der Steen	Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet
Ms Nikini Weragoda	Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet
Mr Paul Slater	New South Wales Department of Premier and Cabinet
Mr Christian Stenta	Victorian Department of Premier and Cabinet
Dr Michael Salter	University of New South Wales
The authors would also like to thank the following people for their valuable input:
Prof Deb Loxton	The University of Newcastle
Ms Natalie Townsend	The University of Newcastle
Prof Stephanie Brown	Murdoch Children’s Research Institute

Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019 133
Abbreviations

ABS	Australian Bureau of Statistics
ADFVDRN	Australian Domestic and Family Violence Death Review Network
AIC	Australian Institute of Criminology
AHRC	Australian Human Rights Commission
AIHW	Australian Institute of Health and Welfare
ALSWH	Australian Longitudinal Study on Women’s Health
ANROWS	Australia’s National Research Organisation for Women’s Safety
AVO	apprehended domestic violence order
DCRF	National Data Collection and Reporting Framework
DVO	domestic violence order
FDSV FGM/C IVAWS LGBTIQ+ LSAC	family, domestic and sexual violence female genital mutilation and cutting International Violence Against Women Survey lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, intersex and/or queer Longitudinal Study of Australian Children
LSIC	Longitudinal Study of Indigenous Children
NATSISS	National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Social Survey
NCAS	National Community Attitudes towards Violence Against Women Survey
NHMP	National Homicide Monitoring Program
NMDS	national minimum data set
NOSPI	The National Outcome Standards for Perpetrator Interventions
PSS	Personal Safety Survey
SHS	specialist homelessness services
SHSC	Specialist Homelessness Services Collection
UNSD	United Nations Statistical Division
WHO	World Health Organization

134 Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019
Glossary
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander: A person of Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander descent
who identifes as an Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander. See also Indigenous.
arranged marriage: Distinct from forced marriage, an arranged marriage is organised by the
families of both spouses, but consent is still present, and the spouses have the right to accept or
reject the marriage arrangement.
Australian Statistical Geography Standard (ASGS): A common framework defned by the
Australian Bureau of Statistics for collecting and disseminating geographically classifed statistics.
See also rural.
dating violence: Violent or intimidating behaviours perpetrated by a current or previous boyfriend,
girlfriend or date.
disability: A limitation, restriction, impairment, disease or disorder that has lasted, or is expected
to last, for 6 months or more, and which restricts everyday activities.
domestic violence: A set of violent or intimidating behaviours usually perpetrated by current or
former intimate partners, where a partner aims to exert power and control over the other,
through fear. Domestic violence can include physical violence, sexual violence, emotional
abuse and psychological abuse.
domestic homicide: A homicide where a person kills a family member or other person in a
domestic relationship. See also intimate partner homicide, flicide, parricide, siblicide.
elder abuse: Physical, psychological and fnancial harm to older people.
emotional abuse: Behaviours or actions that are perpetrated with the intent to manipulate,
control, isolate or intimidate, and which cause emotional harm or fear.
family violence: Violent or intimidating behaviours against a person, perpetrated by a family
member including a current or previous spouse or domestic partner. ‘Family violence’ is the
preferred term used to identify experiences of violence for Indigenous Australians, as it
encompasses the broad range of extended family and kinship relationships in which violence
may occur.
female genital mutilation/cutting: All procedures involving partial or total removal of the
external female genitalia or other injury to the female genital organs, for non-medical reasons.
forced marriage: Distinct from arranged marriage, forced marriage is marriage without the
free and full consent of one or both parties to the marriage.
flicide: A homicide where a parent or step-parent kills a child.
image-based abuse: The sharing of intimate, nude or sexual images without the consent of the
person depicted.
Indigenous: A person of Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander descent who identifes as an
Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander. See also Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander.
intimate partner homicide: A homicide where the victim and oﬀender have a current or former
intimate relationship, including same-sex and extramarital relationships.
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019 135
intimate partner violence: Violent or intimidating behaviours perpetrated by a current or
cohabiting partner, boyfriend, girlfriend or date. See also domestic violence.
Magellan case: A case addressed by the Family Court of Australia where 1 (or both) parties have
raised serious allegations of sexual abuse or physical abuse of children in a parenting dispute.
non-Indigenous: People who have not indicated that they of Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander
descent.
parricide: A homicide where a child kills a parent or step-parent.
partner violence: Violent or intimidating behaviours perpetrated by a current or former cohabiting
partner. See also domestic violence, dating violence and intimate partner violence.
physical abuse: Any deliberate physical injury inﬂicted upon another person. In the PSS, physical abuse
refers only to incidents that occurred before the age of 15.
physical violence: Behaviours that can include slaps, hits, punches, being pushed down stairs
or across a room, choking and burns, as well as the use of knives, frearms and other weapons,
or threats of such acts.
previous partner: A person with whom the respondent lived at some point in a married or de-facto
relationship and from whom the respondent is now separated, divorced or widowed.
psychological abuse: Behaviours that include limiting access to fnances, preventing the victim from
contacting family and friends, demeaning and humiliating the victim, and any threats of injury or
death directed at the victim or their children.
remoteness: Each state and territory is divided into regions based on their relative accessibility to
goods and services (such as general practitioners, hospitals and specialist care), measured by road
distance. These regions are based on the Accessibility/Remoteness Index of Australia and defned as
Remoteness Areas by either the Australian Standard Geographical Classifcation (before 2011) or the
Australian Statistical Geographical Standard (from 2011 onwards) in each Census year.
rural: Geographic areas outside urban areas such as towns and cities. In this report, ‘rural and
remote’ encompasses all areas outside Australia’s Major cities, according to the Australian Statistical
Geographic Standard. The 5 Remoteness Areas are Major cities, Inner regional, Outer regional, Remote
and Very remote.
sexual abuse: A sexual act carried out against a person’s will through the use of physical force,
intimidation or coercion. In the PSS sexual abuse involves a child under the age of 15, in sexual
activity beyond their understanding or contrary to accepted community standards.
sexual assault: A sexual act carried out against a person’s will through the use of physical force,
intimidation or coercion. This includes rape, attempted rape, aggravated sexual assault (assault
with a weapon), indecent assault, penetration by objects, forced sexual activity that did not end in
penetration, and attempts to force a person into sexual activity. These acts are an oﬀence under
state and territory criminal law.
sexual harassment: Behaviours a person experienced that made them feel uncomfortable, and
were oﬀensive, due to their sexual nature. This includes an indecent text, email or post; indecent
exposure; inappropriate comments; and unwanted sexual touching.
136 Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019
sexual violence: The occurrence, attempt or threat of sexual assault experienced by a person since
the age of 15. Sexual violence can be perpetrated by partners in a domestic relationship, previous
partners, other people known to the victim, or strangers.
siblicide: A homicide where one sibling kills another.
socioeconomic disadvantage: When a person has, compared with others, poorer access to material
and social resources, and a reduced ability to participate in society.
specialist homelessness service: Assistance provided specifcally to people who are experiencing
homelessness or who are at risk of homelessness.
stalking: Persistent unwanted behaviours, such as following or making unwanted contact, that
cause fear or distress.
substantiations: ‘Substantiations of notifcations’ refer to child protection notifcations made to
relevant authorities, which were investigated; the investigation was fnalised; and it was concluded
there was reasonable cause to believe that the child had been, was being, or was likely to be, abused,
neglected or otherwise harmed.
victimisation rate: The number of victims per 100,000 of the Estimated Resident Population (ERP).
vulnerable groups: Population groups that are more likely to experience (or to have experienced)
family, domestic and sexual violence, or that face additional barriers in coping with and recovering
from family, domestic and sexual violence.
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019 137
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144 Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019
List of fgures
Figure 1.1: Family, domestic and sexual violence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
Figure 1.2: Key data sources for reporting on family, domestic and sexual violence . . . . . . . . . . . .6
Figure 1.3: National data sources used in this report for monitoring family, domestic
and sexual violence in Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
Figure 2.1: Proportions of women and men aged 18 and over who experienced physical,
sexual and partner violence in the 12 months prior to the 2005, 2012
and 2016 surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10
Figure 2.2: Women and men aged 18 and over who had experienced dating violence,
cohabiting partner violence, or any intimate partner violence since the age of 15 . . .11
Figure 2.3: Women who moved out of home during temporary separation from their most
recently violent previous partner, by places stayed during 1 or more temporary
separations, 2016 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
Figure 2.4: Emotionally abusive behaviours experienced by adults aged 18 and over from
their most recently emotionally abusive previous partner, by sex, 2016. . . . . . . . . . . .15
Figure 3.1: Proportion and total number of assault victims who were victims of family and
domestic violence-related assault, selected states and territories, 2017. . . . . . . . . . . .20
Figure 3.2: Recorded sexual assault rates for females and males, all ages, 2010–2017 . . . . . . . . .22
Figure 3.3: Proportion and number of civil cases fnalised in the Magistrates’ court involving
a family or domestic violence protection order, by state or territory, 2017–18 . . . . . .24
Figure 3.4: Proportion of family orders cases in which a ‘Notice of Child Abuse, Family
Violence or Risk of Family Violence’ form was fled, 2013–14 to 2017–18 . . . . . . . . . . .25
Figure 3.5: Cases involving serious allegations of child abuse in the Family Court of
Australia (Magellan cases), 2013–14 to 2017–18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
Figure 3.6: Assault hospitalisations, adults aged 15 and over, by perpetrator, by sex,
2016–17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29
Figure 3.7: Rate of hospitalisations for family or domestic violence assaults, by relationship
to perpetrator, by age, by sex, 2016–17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
Figure 3.8: Age-standardised rate of assault hospitalisations where the perpetrator was
a spouse or partner, by sex, 2002–13 to 2016–17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31
Figure 3.9: Assault hospitalisations where perpetrator was spouse or domestic partner,
adults aged 15 and over, by type of assault, by sex, 2016–17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31
Figure 3.10: Physical assault hospitalisations where perpetrator was spouse or partner,
adults aged 15 and over, by type of injury, by sex, 2016–17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32
Figure 3.11: Physical assault hospitalisations where perpetrator was spouse or partner,
females aged 15 and over, by type of injury, by pregnancy status, 2016–17 . . . . . . . .34
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019 145
Figure 3.12: Recipients who received Centrelink crisis payments on the grounds of
experiencing family and domestic violence, by housing status, by sex,
2012–13 to 2017–18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35
Figure 3.13: Rate of clients seeking specialist homelessness services as a result of family or
domestic violence, by sex, 2011–12 to 2017–18. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37
Figure 3.14: Clients seeking specialist homelessness services as a result of family or domestic
violence, by age, by sex, 2017–18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38
Figure 4.1: Burden of disease due to partner violence, women aged 15 and over, 2015. . . . . . . .48
Figure 4.2: Number and rates of burden (DALY per 1,000 women) attributable to partner
violence, by age, 2003 and 2015. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49
Figure 4.3: Domestic homicide victims, by type of homicide, by sex of victim, 2014–15 to
2015–16 (per cent) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51
Figure 4.4: Intimate partner homicides with an identifable history of domestic violence,
July 2010–June 2014. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52
Figure 4.5: Intimate partner homicides by location of homicide, by sex of victim and
perpetrator, July 2010 to June 2014 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53
Figure 4.6: Intimate partner homicides, by perpetrator’s use of alcohol and other substances
at the time of homicide, by sex of victim and perpetrator, July 2010 to June 2014 . . .55
Figure 5.1: Women and men who experienced sexual harassment from any person,
by type of sexual harassment, 2016 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63
Figure 5.2: Proportion of women and men who had experienced stalking, by sex of
perpetrator, 2016 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66
Figure 5.3: Women who experienced stalking since the age of 15, by perpetrator of the most
recent incident by a male, 2016 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67
Figure 5.4: Women and men whose most recent incident of stalking since the age of 15 was
perpetrated by a current or previous intimate partner, by behaviours experienced,
2016 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68
Figure 6.1: Hospitalisations for abuse by a family member, children aged 0–14, by method of
abuse, by sex, 2016–17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73
Figure 6.2: Hospitalisations for abuse by a family member, children aged 0–14, by body
region injured, by sex, 2016–17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74
Figure 6.3: Children aged under 18 who were the subject of substantiations (excluding
New South Wales), rate per 1,000 children, 2013–14 to 2017–18. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
Figure 6.4: Number of children who were the subjects of substantiations, by abuse type,
by sex, 2017–18. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
Figure 6.5: Young people who had received child protection services, had been under youth
justice supervision, or both, 1 July 2013 – 30 June 2017 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77
146 Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019
Figure 6.6: The burden of disease due to child abuse and neglect, 2015 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80
Figure 6.7: Women who experienced intimate partner violence, sexual violence or emotional
abuse in the 12 months before the survey, by age group, 2016. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .82
Figure 6.8: Sexual assault victimisation rate for female and male victims, by age group,
by sex, 2017 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .83
Figure 6.9: Women and men who experienced sexual harassment in the 12 months before
the survey, by age group, 2016. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .83
Figure 6.10: Women who experienced stalking by a male in the 12 months before the survey,
by age group, 2016 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84
Figure 6.11: Calls to elder abuse telephone helplines, by state, 2017–18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .86
Figure 6.12: Relationship of reported elder abuse perpetrators to reported victims, as reported
to elder abuse helplines, by state, 2017–18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87
Figure 6.13: Proportion of victims reported to elder abuse helplines, by age, where known,
by state, 2017–18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .88
Figure 6.14: Sex, where known, of elder abuse victims reported to elder abuse helplines,
by state, 2017–18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89
Figure 6.15: Sex, where known, of elder abuse perpetrators reported to elder abuse helplines,
by state, 2017–18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89
Figure 6.16: Reports to elder abuse helplines, by type of abuse, by state, 2017–18 . . . . . . . . . . . . .90
Figure 6.17: Proportion of people who experienced emotional abuse from a current or previous
partner since the age of 15, by disability status, by sex, 2016 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93
Figure 6.18: Relationship to all perpetrators of sexual violence experienced since age 15,
people with disability, by sex, 2016 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .94
Figure 6.19: Assault hospitalisations where perpetrator was spouse or partner, adults aged 15
and over, by remoteness of usual place of residence, by sex, 2016–17. . . . . . . . . . . .102
Figure 6.20: Proportion of people who experienced current and/or previous partner violence
since the age of 15, by sex, by socioeconomic area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103
Figure 6.21: Assault hospitalisations where perpetrator was spouse or partner, adults aged 15
and over, by socioeconomic area of usual place of residence, by sex, 2016–17. . . . .104
Figure 6.22: Age-specifc attributable DALY rate due to domestic violence (per 1,000 women),
by socioeconomic group, 2015 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105
Figure 7.1: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander victims of assault, by perpetrator type,
by sex of victim, selected states and territories, 2017 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .109
Figure 7.2: Indigenous defendants of family violence oﬀences fnalised in the criminal courts,
by method of fnalisation, selected states and territories, 2017–18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .112
Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019 147
Figure 7.3: Rate of hospitalisations for family violence assaults among Indigenous Australians,
by relationship to perpetrator, by sex, 2016–17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .113

Figure 7.4:

Physical assault hospitalisations among Indigenous Australians where the
perpetrator was a spouse or partner, adults aged 15 and over, by type of injury,

by sex, 2016–17. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .114
Figure 7.5: Family violence assault hospitalisations of Indigenous Australians aged 15 and
over in 2016–17 (rate per 1,000). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115
Figure 7.6: Indigenous domestic homicide victims, by type of homicide and sex of victim,
2014–15 to 2015–16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117
148 Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story 2019
List of tables
Table 3.1: Defendants fnalised for 1 or more family and domestic violence oﬀence in the
magistrates’ court, states and territories, 2016–17 and 2017–18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27
Table 3.2: Proportion and number of clients aﬀected by family violence seeking services
through Relationships Australia, selected states and territories, by sex, 2017–18. . . .39
Table 4.1: Employment status of the victim at the time of homicide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54
Table 5.1: Community knowledge of violence against women, 1995–2017 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59
Table 6.1: Telephone calls to elder abuse helplines, by selected identity of caller, by state,
2017–18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .86
Table 6.2: Proportion of elder abuse cases reported to helplines that are directly
attributable to family and domestic violence, by state, 2017–18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87
Related publications
The following AIHW publications might also be of interest:
• AIHW 2019. Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: continuing the national story,
2019—in brief. Cat. no. FDV 4. Canberra: AIHW.
• AIHW 2019. Insights into vulnerabilities of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people aged 50
and over—in brief. Cat no. IHW 207. Canberra: AIHW.
• AIHW 2018. Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia, 2018. Cat. no. FDV 2. Canberra: AIHW.
• AIHW 2016. Family violence prevention programs in Indigenous communities. Cat. no. IHW 173.
Canberra: AIHW.

aihw.gov.au
Stronger evidence,
better decisions,
improved health and welfare
Family, domestic and sexual violence is a major health and welfare
issue. It aﬀects people of all ages and from all backgrounds, but
mainly women and children. This report explores the impact of family,
domestic and sexual violence among vulnerable groups, including
children, older people, people with disability, LGBTIQ+ people, and
Indigenous Australians. It also looks at what is being done to fll
important data gaps.

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