Every child’s right to be heard - Australia Assignments

every child’sHuman Computer Interaction
right to be heard
a resource guide on the un committee
on the rights of the child general comment no.12
Gerison Lansdown
save the Children is the world’s leading independent
children’s rights organisation, with members in
29 countries and operational programmes in more
than 120. we fght for children’s rights and deliver
lasting improvements to children’s lives worldwide.
Published by Save the Children UK on behalf of Save the Children and UNICEF.
Save the Children UK
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First published 2011
© The Save the Children Fund 2011
The Save the Children Fund is a charity registered in England and Wales (213890) and
Scotland (SC039570). Registered Company No. 178159
This publication is copyright, but may be reproduced by any method without fee or prior
permission for teaching purposes, but not for resale. For copying in any other circumstances,
prior written permission must be obtained from the publisher, and a fee may be payable.
Cover photo: Children watch a performance by fellow students at a school in
El Oro, Ecuador. (Photo: Edward Naranjo and Maruska Bonilla/Save the Children)
Typeset by Grasshopper Design Company
Foreword vi
acknowledgements viii
abbreviations ix
introduCtion 1
Key to boxes and symbols 2
ChAPTER ONE
settinGthe Context 3
Background 3
why listening to children is important 5
Participation contributes to personal development 5
Participation leads to better decision-making and outcomes 5
Participation serves to protect children 7
Participation contributes to preparation for civil society development,
tolerance and respect for others 9
Participation strengthens accountability 9
addressing the arguments against children’s participation 12
ChAPTER TWO
LeGaL anaLysis oF artiCLe 12 19
article 12 para 1 19
Assuring the right to express views 19
Every child capable of forming his or her own views 20
The right to express views freely 22
The right to express views on all matters affecting them 22
The obligation to give due weight in accordance with age and maturity 23
article 12 para 2 24
The right to be heard in judicial or administrative proceedings 24
The right to be heard directly or through a representative body 24
Representation in a manner consistent with procedural rules of national law 26
ChAPTER ThREE
artiCLe 12 and LinKs with other artiCLes
in the unCrC 31
General principles 31
Articles 12 and 2 31
Articles 12 and 3 32
Articles 12 and 6 34
Civil rights and freedoms 35
Articles 12 and 13 35
Articles 12 and 14 35
Articles 12 and 15 35
Articles 12 and 16 36
Articles 12 and 17 36
evolving capacity and the exercise of rights 36
Articles 12 and 5 36
Contents
iii
ChAPTER FOUR
overarChinG measures For impLementinG artiCLe 12 41
1. review and withdraw restrictive declarations and reservations to article 12 41
2. introduce legislation 41
3. establish independent human rights institutions 41
4. provide training on article 12 for all relevant professionals 41
5. ensure appropriate conditions for enabling children to express views 44
6. Combat negative attitudes 46
ChAPTER FIvE
oBLiGations reLatinGto judiCiaL and
administrative proCeedinGs 51
General steps to be taken in all proceedings 51
Preparation 51
The hearing 52
Assessment of the capacity of the child 55
Feedback on the weight given to the views of the child 57
Complaints, remedies and redress 57
obligations relating to specifc proceedings 63
Divorce and separation 63
Separation from parents and alternative care 65
Adoption and kafalah of Islamic law 67
The child offender 67
Child victims and child witnesses 71
Immigration and asylum proceedings 76
ChAPTER SIx
impLementinG artiCLe 12 in diFFerent settinGs 81
in the family 81
Support and guidance for parents 82
Parental responsibilities and the law 85
in alternative care 85
Legal right to be involved in individual decisions relating to all aspects
of the care system 86
Legal right to be consulted in the development of care services 87
Access to information 88
Independent and safe complaints mechanisms 88
Independent inspectorate 88
Independent monitoring body 88
Consultative mechanisms 88
in healthcare 92
Involvement in decision-making 92
Access to confdential medical counselling 94
Consent to treatment 96
Participation in the development of health services 98
iv
EvERy ChILD’S RIGhT TO BE hEARD
v
Contents
in education 100
Involvement of children in individual decisions affecting their education 100
Participatory child-centred learning 102
Democratic school environments 102
Participation in education policy 108
National student organisations 108
in play, recreation, sport and cultural activities 109
in the media 112
in the workplace 112
in situations of violence 113
ChAPTER SEvEN
impLementinG artiCLe 12 in the puBLiC arena 119
within local communities 119
at the national level 128
in conﬂict and humanitarian reconstruction 139
ChAPTER EIGhT
Forms oF ChiLd partiCipation 147
potential approaches to participation 147
Consultative participation 147
Collaborative participation 148
Child-led participation 150
Basic requirements for effective and ethical participation 152
1. Transparent and informative 152
2. Voluntary 152
3. Respectful 153
4. Relevant 153
5. Facilitated with child-friendly environments and working methods 153
6. Inclusive 154
7. Supported by training 155
8. Safe and sensitive to risk 155
9. Accountable 156
appendix: Child and youth participation resource guide 158
vi
Since the adoption of the UN Convention
on the Rights of the Child in 1989, Article
12 – the provision that children have a
right to express their views and have them
taken seriously in accordance with their
age and maturity – has proved one of the
most challenging to implement. Although
understanding of childhood and attitudes
towards children differs widely across
cultures, the experience of the Committee
on the Rights of the Child has been that
the reasons for excluding children from
participation in matters that affect them are
remarkably consistent across different parts
of the world: children lack competence; they
lack knowledge and judgement; involving
them in decisions is to place too heavy a
burden on them; parents know what is best
for their children; giving children a voice will
lead to excessive demands, bad behaviour,
disrespect for elders; participation will
expose children to risk of harm. However,
we have learned over the past 20 years
that these concerns are not borne out by
the evidence. Time and again, experience
shows that children – even very young
children – given the time and opportunity,
demonstrate not only that they have views,
experiences and perspectives to express,
but that their expression can contribute
positively to decisions that affect the
realisation of their rights and wellbeing.
Article 12 is important as a fundamental
right: it is a measure of our human dignity
that we are able to be involved in decisions
that affect us, consistent with our levels
of competence. It is also a means through
which other rights are realised. It is not
possible to claim rights without a voice.
Children who are silenced cannot challenge
violence and abuse perpetrated against
them. The capacity to learn is restricted
without the chance to question, challenge
and debate. Policy-makers cannot identify
the barriers to fulflling children’s rights if
they do not hear from children about the
existence and nature of those barriers.
And the right to be heard applies to every
aspect of a child’s life – at home, in school, in
healthcare, in play and leisure, in the media,
in the courts, in local communities, and in
local and national policy-making, as well as at
the international level.
However, although much progress has been
made in many countries, with countless
positive examples of legislation, policy
and practice, it remains the case that for
too many children across the world, the
right to be heard remains unrealised.
Those from more marginalised groups are
disproportionately denied the opportunity
– for example, girls, children with disabilities,
children from indigenous groups, children
with undocumented parents, children
in conﬂict with the law, and those living
in extreme poverty. The Committee is
committed to strengthening the capacity
of governments to introduce the measures
necessary to implement Article 12. From
its dialogue with governments, it is clear
that while many are committed to meeting
their obligations to promote ways of giving
children a voice, they lack the knowledge,
confdence or capacity to achieve that goal.
The Committee, therefore, recommends
this resource guide as a major contribution
to achieving change. It elaborates the
General Comment developed by the
Committee, providing practical help
on implementation through examples
of legislation and policy, guidelines for
practitioners, evidence from research, and
examples of meaningful participation in
practice. It draws together experiences from
around the world to enable governments
to learn from each other, build on existing
developments, and broaden understanding
of the scope and meaning of Article 12.
The evidence it produces demonstrates
that not only is it possible to create
environments in which children can make
a signifcant contribution to their own and
others’ lives, but that doing so brings real
benefts. Sustained action across the felds
outlined in the publication will serve to
Foreword
vii
Foreword
build environments in which children are
recognised as active citizens, contributing
both to decisions that affect their own lives
as well as to their communities and wider
society. Strengthening skills, confdence and
capacity for democratic participation during
childhood will also bring lifelong benefts.
yanghee Lee
former Chair, UN Committee on the
Rights of the Child
jean Zermatten
Chair, UN Committee on the Rights of
the Child
viii
Many people have contributed to the
development of this resource guide.
Particular thanks are due to Philip Cook,
Golda el Khoury, Claire Feinstein, Jason
Hart, Roger Hart, Aigul Kadirova, Vivian
Lopez, Charlotte McCLain-Nhlapo, Peter
Newell, Claire O’Kane, Kavita Ratna, Harry
Shier, Rachele Tardi-Forgacs, and Joachim
Theis; and to past and present members of
the Committee on the Rights of the Child,
including Jaap Doek, Moushira Khattab,
Lothar Krappman, Lucy Smith, Yanghee Lee
and Jean Zermatten.
Thanks are also due to the government
representatives from Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan,
Oman, Jordan, United Arab Emirates, Syria,
occupied Palestinian territory, Tunisia and
Turkey who participated in a consultative
workshop on the draft version of this
resource guide, and to staff at the UNICEF
Turkey country offce who organised the
meeting, especially Regina De Dominicis and
Nilgun Cavusoglu.
Special thanks to the core group that
worked behind the scenes to produce
this handbook: Bill Bell, Ravi Karkara and
Victor Karunan.
aBout the author
Gerison Lansdown was the founder director
of the Children’s Rights Alliance for England,
and is now an international children’s rights
consultant and advocate who has published
and lectured widely on the subject of
children’s rights. She was actively involved in
the drafting of the Convention on the Rights
of Persons with Disabilities, is an Honorary
Fellow of UNICEF-UK, a visiting scholar at
Queen’s University, Belfast, an associate of
the International Institute for Child Rights
and Development in Victoria, Canada, and
co-director of CRED-PRO, an international
initiative to develop child rights educational
programmes for professionals working
with children. Publications include: Promoting
Children’s Participation in Democratic
Decision Making, UNICEF, 2001; The Evolving
Capacities of the Child, UNICEF, 2005; A
Human Rights Based Approach to Education
for All, UNICEF/UNESCO, 2007; and See Me
Hear Me, a Guide to the CRPD for Children
with Disabilities, Save the Children, 2009.
aCKnowLedGements
ix
aBBreviations

ENOC	European Network of Ombudspersons for Children
IASC	Inter-Agency Standing Committee
ICCPR	International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
ICRC	International Committee of the Red Cross
MDG	Millennium Development Goal
NGO	Non-governmental organisation
NPA	National Plan of Action
PRSP	Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper
RRS	Rights Respecting Schools
SRHE	Sexual and reproductive health education
UNCRC	United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child
UNICEF	United Nations Children’s Fund
UNODC	United Nations Offce on Drugs and Crime

1
“It was my frst experience of hearing a
document based on the voices of children
including my own voice. After listening to it,
I thought, ‘Children can change the world
if they are given a chance. We have to fght
for that chance.’” Jehanzeb Khan, 12 years old,
Pakistan, on his experience at the UN Special Session
on Children, 2002
The United Nations Convention on the
Rights of the Child (UNCRC), which was
adopted by the UN General Assembly in
1989, included a provision that introduced
a right of all children capable of forming a
view to be heard and to be taken seriously.
The provision, outlined in article 12 of
the Convention, states that:
1. States Parties shall assure to the child who
is capable of forming his or her own views
the right to express those views freely in all
matters affecting the child, the views of the
child being given due weight in accordance
with the age and maturity of the child.
2. For this purpose the child shall in
particular be provided the opportunity to
be heard in any judicial and administrative
proceedings affecting the child, either directly,
or through a representative or appropriate
body, in a manner consistent with the
procedural rules of national law.
It was a new concept in international law,
and posed a challenge to most countries
throughout the world, where a culture of
listening to children was not widespread or
even acceptable. Over the past 20 years,
many governments, alongside civil society
organisations, have begun to grapple with
the implications of this new obligation
to recognise children as citizens, as
participants and as active contributors
both to decisions within their own lives
and to the wider society. However, there
is still a lack of understanding, and often
of confdence, among governments as to
what it means to listen to children, and
how to introduce the necessary measures
to fulfl that responsibility.
Accordingly, in June 2009, the Committee
on the Rights of the Child, the international
body established to monitor governments’
implementation of the UNCRC, adopted
a General Comment on the Right of the
Child to be Heard. This General Comment
elaborates in detail the scope of Article 12,
and how the Committee expects
governments to interpret their obligations
to children under its provisions. It is
intended to provide an elaboration of what
action governments are expected to take to
implement Article 12, and how to interpret
its meaning. This resource guide has been
produced as a companion document to
sit alongside the General Comment,
largely following its structure, to provide
governments with more detailed practical
guidance on how to implement it. In addition
to a fuller explanation of how to understand
the obligation to listen to children and take
them seriously, it provides:
• illustrative examples of laws and
regulations that have been adopted by
some governments to give effect to the
right embodied in Article 12
• illustrative examples of guidance and
policy that have been adopted by some
governments, professional bodies and
other institutions to give effect to the
right embodied in Article 12
• suggested practical guidance on how to
create the opportunities for children to
be heard
• evidence from research, for example,
regarding the impact of children’s
participation, or children’s concerns in
particular settings
introduCtion
This resource guide is based on and elaborates the UN Committee on the Rights of the Child
General Comment No. 12, ‘The Right of the Child to be heard’. The full text of the General
Comment can be found at: http://www.ohchr.org/english/bodies/crc/comments.htm
2
• illustrative examples from around the
world of initiatives undertaken to enable
children to participate in decisions and
actions that affect them
• basic requirements for ensuring child
participation that is ethical, safe and
effective
• the arguments to be made to
demonstrate the positive outcomes
associated with realising the right of
children to be heard and taken seriously.
The child’s right to be heard is, as yet, far
from being fulflled for the majority of
children around the world. The aim of this
handbook is to try to make easier the task
of governments in moving that agenda
forward. It seeks to demonstrate not only
that it is eminently possible to fulfl the
obligations associated with Article 12,
but also that there are profound benefts
associated with doing so. It provides an
opportunity for governments to explore the
potential for building on the experiences of
other countries and regions in implementing
Article 12.
It is aimed primarily at governments, national
and local government offcials, policy-makers
and parliamentarians, although it will also
be valuable for those advocating with
governments. Article 12 extends to matters
relating to health, education, child protection,
child welfare, juvenile justice, planning,
transport, economic development and
social protection. Therefore, even though
there may be a lead department focusing
specifcally on children, it is important that
all relevant government departments make
use of the guidance the handbook contains.
This resource guide is not a toolkit on how
to engage with children and young people.
There are many such resources available and
the present publication does not seek to
replicate them. Instead, details of the UNICEF
Child and Youth Participation Resource Guide,
which includes a broad range of publications
providing detailed guidance on the
practicalities of promoting child participation,
have been included in the Appendix.
EvERy ChILD’S RIGhT TO BE hEARD

Key to Boxes and symBoLs
The resource guide contains boxes with illustrative examples, research evidence, policy and practical
guidance, as well as a summary of key points. These are indicated as follows:
Research and evidence
Examples of practice
Legislation
Policy or guidance
Summary

Chapter one
Setting the context
Save the Children
Chapter one
Setting the context
Background
Why liStening to children iS important
Participation contributes to personal development
Participation leads to better decision-making and outcomes
Participation serves to protect children
Participation contributes to preparation for civil society
development, tolerance and respect for others
Participation strengthens accountability
addreSSing the argumentS againSt
children’S participation
3
“The right to speak is the right to be
listened to; in practice there is a gap
between speaking and being listened to.”
Young people at Shaking the Movers conference,
‘Speaking Truth to Power: Civil and Political Rights
of Children’, Carleton University, Canada, 2007
BaCKGround
Article 12 of the UNCRC establishes the
right of children to be involved in decisions
that affect them, both as individuals and as
a group. This right to be heard and taken
seriously is one of the fundamental values of
the Convention. It is not only a free-standing
right, but the Committee on the Rights of
the Child has identifed Article 12 as one of
its four general principles.1 In other words, it
must be considered in the implementation
of all other rights, and as one of the
general measures of implementation of
the UNCRC.2
Article 12, together with the other key civil
rights in the UNCRC, recognises the child
as an active agent in the exercise of his or
her rights. This right of active engagement
has been broadly conceptualised as
‘participation’, although the term itself
is not used in Article 12. Of course,
children have always participated in many
ways within societies; for example, at the
community level, through play and the
arts, and in their economic contribution to
their families. In the context of Article 12,
however, the term participation has evolved,
and is now very widely used, as a shorthand
term to describe the process of children
expressing their views and having them
taken seriously. Participation can be defned
as an ongoing process of children’s
expression and active involvement
in decision-making at different levels
in matters that concern them. it
requires information-sharing and
dialogue between children and
adults based on mutual respect,
and requires that full consideration
of their views be given, taking into
account the child’s age and maturity.
Children can form and express views from
the earliest age, but the nature of their
participation, and the range of decisions
in which they are involved, will necessarily
increase in accordance with their age
and evolving capacities. Young children’s
participation will be largely limited to issues
relating to their immediate environment
within the family, care facilities and their
local community. However, as they grow
older and their capacities develop, their
horizons broaden and they are entitled to
be involved in the wide range of issues that
affect them from the immediate family to
the international level.
There has been progress, since the adoption
of the UNCRC in 1989, at local, national,
regional and global levels, towards putting
this principle into effect. At the UN General
Assembly Special Session on Children
in 2002, States Parties affrmed their
commitment to the realisation of Article 12.3
This commitment was given further
emphasis in the UN General Assembly
Omnibus resolution in November 2009
which urged governments to:
“Assure that children are given the
opportunity to be heard on all matters
affecting them, without discrimination on
any grounds, by adopting and/or continuing
to implement regulations and arrangements
that provide for and encourage, as
appropriate, children’s participation in all
settings, including within the family, in school
and in their communities, and that are frmly
anchored in laws and institutional codes and
that are regularly evaluated with regard to
their effectiveness.” 4
ChAPTER ONE
settinGthe Context
1 The other general principles are Article 2, on non-discrimination,
Article 3, on best interests and Article 6, on the right to life and
maximum survival and development.
2 See General Comment No. 5, ‘General Measures of
Implementation for the Convention on the Rights of the
Child’ (Arts 4, 42 and 44, para 6), CRC/GC/2003/5 for an
elaboration of the general principles.
3 UN General Assembly, A World Fit for Children, A/RES/S-27/2,
11 October 2002
4 UN General Assembly, Promotion and Protection of Children’s Rights,
A/C.3/64/L.21/Rev.1
4
Across the world, governments, as well
as civil society organisations, professional
bodies, academic institutions and
development agencies as well as UN bodies,
have taken action to try to give effect to this
right to be heard. Books have been written,
research has been undertaken, thousands of
initiatives have been introduced, and spaces
for children’s voices have been created,
from the school to the global community.
Children have been engaged in advocacy,
social and economic analysis, campaigning,
research, peer education, community
development, political dialogue, programme
and project design and development, and
democratic participation in schools. Some
governments have introduced constitutional
reform, legislation and policies to give effect
to Article 12. The last 20 years have been
a period of advocacy to promote and
legitimate the concept of participation, and
of exploration of strategies for translating
it into practice. Indeed, for many people,
children’s rights have become synonymous
with participation.
Nevertheless, the right to be heard and
taken seriously remains elusive for most
children across the world. And even where
it is implemented, it is often only in limited
aspects of a child’s life and largely through
short-term projects and programmes. Full
implementation of Article 12 continues to
be impeded by many long-standing practices,
cultures and attitudes, and by political and
economic obstacles. Furthermore, younger
children and girls, as well as many other
marginalised and minority groups, face
particular barriers in the realisation of this
right. There is also concern about the quality
of much of the practice that does exist.
There is a need for better understanding
of what Article 12 involves; the benefts of
its implementation; how to implement it
for children of all ages; and the approaches
needed to achieve meaningful and ethical
participation in decision-making.
The real challenge now is to apply the
learning from the past 20 years to embed
participation as a sustainable right for all
children, in all areas of their lives.

evidenCe oF proGress
At the World Summit for Children in 1990, children were brought to Newyork, dressed in their
national costumes, and their role was limited to accompanying their respective national delegates.
By contrast, for the UN Special Session for Children in 2002 children throughout the world had
been involved for months beforehand in local, national, regional and international consultations
and meetings to prepare their agendas and concerns. In most cases, they were able to elect their
representatives to go to Newyork, where a separate Children’s Forum was held in advance of the
Special Session. At the Special Session, the children presented their demands to the world leaders
and participated at all levels throughout the process – as members of government and NGO
delegations, as chairs, speakers and as participants from the ﬂoor. They produced their own fnal
statement and inﬂuenced the entire process. In other words, they were active participants. huge
progress had been achieved in strengthening their engagement beyond the passive role they had
played in the 1990 meeting.

EvERy ChILD’S RIGhT TO BE hEARD
5
chapter one • settinG the Context
why ListeninGto
ChiLdren is important
“If you had a problem in the Black
community, and you brought in a group
of White people to discuss how to solve
it, almost nobody would take that panel
seriously. In fact, there’d probably be a public
outcry. It would be the same for women’s
issues or gay issues. But every day, in local
arenas all the way to the White House,
adults sit around and decide what problems
youth have and what youth need, without
ever consulting us.” Jason, 17, Youth Force Member,
Bronx, NY
There are widely held views that
children lack capacity to make informed
contributions to decision-making, that
doing so may place them at risk and that
their participation will have adverse effects
on family and school life. However, the
experience of child participation around the
world provides a growing body of evidence,
not only that these concerns are unfounded,
but that participation has a widespread
positive impact. If adults are to fulfl their
obligations to promote the best interests
of children, they need to listen to children
themselves. The Committee on the Rights
of the Child considers that recognising the
right of the child to express views and to
participate in various activities, according to
her or his evolving capacities, is benefcial
for the child, the family, the community, the
school, the state and democracy.
participation contributes to
personal development
The realisation of the right to be heard and
to have views given due weight promotes
the capacities of children. There is a
growing body of evidence that routinely
taking children’s views and experiences
into account – within the family, at school
and in other settings – helps develop
children’s self-esteem, cognitive abilities,
social skills and respect for others.5Through
participation, children acquire skills, build
competence, extend aspirations and gain
confdence. A virtuous circle is created.
The more children participate, the more
effective their contributions and the greater
the impact on their development. Children
acquire competence in direct relation to the
scope available to them to exercise agency
over their own lives. The most effective
preparation for building self-confdence is
to achieve a goal for oneself and not merely
to observe someone else achieving that
goal. Children who are highly marginalised
fnd it very hard to achieve this on their
own and need support through organised
participation if they are to realise their
potential.
participation leads to better
decision-making and outcomes
Adults do not always have suffcient
insight into children’s lives to be able to
make informed and effective decisions on
the legislation, policies and programmes
designed for children. Children have a
unique body of knowledge about their lives,
needs and concerns, together with ideas
and views which derive from their direct
experience. This knowledge and experience
relates to both matters affecting them as
individuals and matters of wider concern
to children as a group. It needs to inform
all decision-making processes affecting
children’s lives. Decisions that are fully
informed by children’s own perspectives
will be more relevant, more effective and
more sustainable.
5 See for example, R Kränzl-Nagl and U Zartler, ‘Children’s
participation in school and community. European perspectives’
in B Percy-Smith and N Thomas (eds) A handbook of children and
young people’s participation. Perspectives from theory and practice,
Routledge, London, 2009; K Covell and R B howe, Rights, respect
and responsibility. Report on the RRR initiative to Hampshire County
Education Authority, Children’s Rights Centre, Cape Breton
University, Nova Scotia, Canada, 2005; and P Kirby with S Bryson,
Measuring the magic. Evaluating and researching young people’s
participation in public decision making, Carnegieyoung People
Initiative, London, 2002.
6

partiCipatory eduCation Leads to enhanCed LearninG
in CoLomBia6
Evidence of how much more children can achieve through a democratic and socially relevant
education can be seen in the New Schools programme in Colombia. Through this programme,
schools have introduced a ﬂexible curriculum with mixed-age classrooms which allow children to
learn individually and in groups, with the teacher able to function as a facilitator. They have also
developed structures that enable children to function as a democratic community. For example, one
school has developed a forest conservation project in which the children are seeking to save the
mountain slope by planting native species of trees. Part of the challenge is for the children to educate
local villagers about the problem of using wood for frewood and for sale. The children collect
seeds from existing trees to establish a nursery, which will ultimately result in replanting all the
slopes with native trees in close collaboration with the adults of the community. The strength of the
programme lies in the wide range of abilities children acquire, backed up by the opportunity to learn
through practice. Beyond the basic skills of literacy and numeracy, they learn environmental science,
development and sustainability, processes of democracy and decision-making, and how to formulate
and present arguments, and they acquire negotiation skills. A key element of the educational process
is that, by being respected, children learn to take responsibility for the project, with the support of
committed adults.

ChiLdren as Community Leaders in eGypt7
A participatory sanitation and hygiene education programme is bringing a transformational change in
the socio-economic conditions of communities living in remote villages of Egypt. The programme is
involving children in a process of change to improve the habitats in which they reside. It is based on
training a group of committed children on various aspects of sanitation and hygiene education, and
making them leaders in an initiative designed to have an immediate impact on the living conditions
of their respective communities. They are equipped with the skills and the scientifc knowledge to
undertake this task. The programme includes disseminating information about the nutritional value of
various kinds of food. Emphasis is placed on the need to have a balanced diet, which includes fruits,
milk and vegetables, rather than just meat. Lessons on environmental protection are also part of the
programme. For example, the students are educated in the importance of keeping the rivers clean,
and stress is laid on the civic responsibility not to pollute public spaces.
The impact of the training programme is already evident in the daily lives of the villagers. Eleven-year
old Asmaa, who lives with her extended family of 20 people in Zarazra village in Sohag, Upper Egypt,
says many of her habits have changed since joining the programme. She explains that she has become
confdent enough to take a lead role in ensuring that other children in the village beneft from the
knowledge she has received. “Whenever I see other children throwing rubbish on the street or in the river,
I tell them not to and I explain why. They do listen to me, and are willing to learn just like I was. I also tell
them never to swim in the river or the canal, because they might get sick, which is what we have learned at
school.” her mother, Labiba, is proud of her daughter: “The conditions in our village are poor. But it is the
children’s progress that gives otherwise impoverished families hope.”

6 R hart, Children’s Participation: the theory and practice of involving
young citizens in community development and environmental care,
UNICEF, Newyork, 1997
7 Adapted from: UNICEF Empowered for Good: Case Study No. 1
http://www.unicef.org/wash/index_documents.html
EvERy ChILD’S RIGhT TO BE hEARD
7
chapter one • settinG the Context
participation serves to protect children
The right to express views and have them
taken seriously is a powerful tool through
which to challenge situations of violence,
abuse, threat, injustice or discrimination.
Children traditionally have been denied
both the knowledge that they are entitled
to protection from violence, and the
mechanisms through which to challenge
this situation. The consequent silencing of
children and the abuse they experience
has had the effect of protecting abusers
rather than children. However, if they are
encouraged to voice what is happening
to them, and provided with the necessary
mechanisms through which they can raise
concerns, it is much easier for violations of
rights to be exposed.10The self-esteem and
confdence acquired through participation
also empower children to challenge abuses
of their rights. Furthermore, adults can act
to protect children only if they are informed
about what is happening in children’s lives;
and often it is only children themselves
who can provide that information. Violence
against children in families, schools, prisons
and institutions, or exploitative child labour
will be tackled more effectively if children
themselves are enabled to tell their stories
to those people with the authority to take
appropriate action.
It is also important to recognise that
protective approaches which entail children
being completely dependent on adult
support run the risk of children being
abandoned without resources when that
adult protection is withdrawn.11This was a
point made strongly in 2000 by the youth
delegates to the Winnipeg conference
on war-affected children, who stressed
that they no longer wanted to be cast in
the role of passive victims.12 Rather, they
wanted recognition that, although they had
suffered in their experiences of war, they
had also developed coping strategies to deal
with those situations and wanted to use
their experiences in contributing to their

ChiLdren inFLuenCinGthe parLiamentary proCess in niGeria
and serBia
Child participation has had an impact on the parliamentary process in Nigeria by increasing
parliamentarians’ awareness of children’s rights. For example, the process has played a signifcant role
in the passage of Nigeria’s Children’s Rights Act.8 During the public hearing on the draft bill, members
of the Children’s Parliament made a special presentation, called ‘voices of Nigerian Children –
Children are an Investment and not an Expenditure’. The children made their views known in their
own language and urged parliamentarians to pass the legislation in order to improve the situation of
Nigerian children. Following the public hearing, the child parliamentarians paid courtesy calls on the
President of the Senate and the Speaker of the house of Representatives, urging the parliamentary
leaders to ensure the prompt passage of the bill. The children were invited to sit in the galleries of
both houses during the debate and consideration of the bill’s provisions.
Similar headway has been made in Serbia where child participation has led to greater awareness
of children’s rights among MPs, local offcials, districts and municipalities.9 Regular meetings take
place between MPs and children so that their voices are heard. This helps to build children’s trust in
parliament, and contributes to building a culture of democracy.

8 UNICEF, Guide to working with Parliaments, UNICEF, Newyork,
2009
9 Ibid.
10 See, for example, C Willow, The right to be heard and effective child
protection, Save the Children, Bangkok, 2010
11 W Myers and J Boyden, Strengthening children in situations of
adversity, Refugee Studies Centre, Oxford, 2001
12 G Cockburn, Meaningful youth participation in international
conferences: a case study of the international conference on waraffected children, CIDA, 2001
8
communities. In both the European and
South East Asian youth consultations for the
Third World Congress against Commercial
Sexual Exploitation of Children, it was
stressed that participation was a foundation
for protection against commercial and
sexual exploitation.13 In the strategy arising
from the consultation, the delegates
emphasised the importance of partnerships
with children that enhanced the capacities
of children themselves to address abuse.
It suggested that this be achieved through
providing information, promoting inclusion
of children at all levels of activity, supporting
children in accessing the media, and enabling
children to participate in awareness-raising
programmes at local, national and
regional levels.

respondinGto ChiLdren’s views on how they Can
Be proteCted14
A local non-governmental organisation (NGO) had supported a primary school outside a brothel
in Bangladesh. Children attended the school during the day, then returned to their mothers in the
brothel in the evening. Several girls approached the NGO to say they did not want to return home
because they feared being initiated into prostitution. The staff and girls discussed the matter with
the mothers and for two years the girls slept in the offces of the NGO. Eventually the NGO raised
enough funds to build a safe home for the children; the mothers contribute fnancially to their
children’s education and upkeep. There is no equivalent safe home for boys, and some girls do return
to the brothel. however, the NGO’s receptiveness to the children’s own solutions undoubtedly
improved their protection and life chances.

inCreasinGvuLneraBiLity By denyinG ChiLdren a voiCe
In Zimbabwe, government policy in respect of reproductive health is simply to promote abstinence.
In a study of adolescent reproductive health rights, 42% of the adolescents reported a lack of
information on forms of contraception, and in the absence of offcial provision of information,
adolescents acquire it from unreliable and ill-informed sources.15 This leads to misconceptions,
which increase rather than reduce exposure to harmful behaviours, such as 60% of respondents
believing that family planning leads to infertility, and many others that condoms weaken sperm and
that contraceptives cause viruses. The problem is compounded by the fact that adolescents are not
entitled to seek medical help or advice in confdence. Staff are required by law to seek parental
consent before providing advice or services.
Similarly, a survey of adolescents in the transition countries, which are changing from a centrally
planned to a market economy, found that over 50% reported having little or no information about
hIv and AIDS and 60% felt that they had little or no information about sexual relationships. Keeping
adolescents in ignorance disempowers them and denies them the opportunity to develop their
understanding and to take increasing responsibility for their own protection in accordance with their
evolving capacities.

13 youth recommendations to the East Asia and the Pacifc Regional
Preparatory Meeting for the World Congress III, Bangkok,
Thailand, 14–19 August 2008, and Europe and CIS Child and
youth Preparatory Forum for the World Congress III against
Sexual Exploitation of Children and Adolescents, 31 October to
2 November 2008, Düsseldorf
14 Adapted from: K heissler, Background paper on good practices
and priorities to combat sexual abuse and exploitation of children in
Bangladesh, UNICEF, Dhaka, Bangladesh, 2001
15 State of denial: adolescent reproductive rights in Zimbabwe, Center
for Reproductive Law and Policy and Child Law Foundation,
Newyork, 2002
EvERy ChILD’S RIGhT TO BE hEARD
9
chapter one • settinG the Context
participation contributes to preparation
for civil society development, tolerance
and respect for others
Respecting children and providing them
with opportunities to participate in matters
of concern to them is one of the most
effective ways of encouraging them to
believe in themselves, to gain confdence,
and to learn how to negotiate decisionmaking with other people. Children’s
involvement in groups, clubs, committees,
non-governmental organisations (NGOs),
boards, unions and other forms of
organisation offers them opportunities for
helping to strengthen civil society, learning
how to contribute towards community
development, and recognising that it is
possible to make a positive difference.
Participation also offers opportunities
for children from diverse backgrounds
to build a sense of belonging, solidarity,
justice, responsibility, caring and sensitivity.
Democracy requires a citizenry with the
understanding, skills and commitment to
building and supporting its institutions. It
is through participation that children can
develop those capacities, starting with
negotiations over decision-making within
the family, through to resolving conﬂicts
in school, and contributing to policy
developments at the local or national level.
It can equip children to learn to respect
differences and resolve conﬂicts peacefully,
and to strengthen their capacity to arrive at
win-win solutions. Democracy also requires
both direct and indirect participation:
children can participate either directly,
representing themselves as individuals, or
as representatives of others, with a clear
mandate from the group they represent and
equally clear accountability to that group.
Supporting a child’s right to be heard in the
early years is integral to nurturing citizenship
over the long term. In this way, the values
of democracy are embedded in the child’s
approach to life – a far more effective
grounding for democracy than a sudden
transfer of power at the age of 18.
participation strengthens accountability
Building opportunities for children to engage
in issues of concern to them in their local
community not only contributes to civic
engagement, but also strengthens capacity
for holding governments and other dutybearers to account. Knowledge of one’s
rights, learning the skills of participation,
acquiring confdence in using and gathering
information, engaging in dialogue with
others and understanding the responsibilities
of governments are all vital elements in
creating an articulate citizenry. Governments
have a key role to play in ensuring that
citizens have the awareness, commitment
and capacity to challenge government action
or inaction through democratic and peaceful
means, and to contribute to positive
policy-making and improved allocation of
resources. Building these opportunities
for children from the earliest ages will
contribute signifcantly to the creation of
accountable and transparent governance,
not only at the government level but in all
arenas children and young people inhabit.
10

ChiLdren inFLuenCinG LoCaL GovernanCe intanZania16
Child participation is a key mechanism for ensuring that all the structures of the government,
including local authorities, are made aware of children’s rights. In Tanzania, children’s councils,
comprising children under the age of 18, have been formed to raise policy-makers’ awareness about
key issues of concern to children in the local community. Children are elected to the council for
a two-year period. The election is an important element in the functioning of these councils as it
inculcates democratic values among the children. An inclusive approach to membership is adopted,
with fair representation being accorded to children with disabilities, as well as other vulnerable
children. A child standing for election articulates a number of reasons for joining the council,
including the desire to improve their knowledge of children’s rights and of children’s position within
society, and the desire to assist children in need.
The council draws up a work plan to establish its priorities for the coming year. Priority issues
identifed have included school drop-out as a consequence of lack of money, child labour, poorly
performing schools, parents neglecting to take their children for vaccination at local clinics, parents
not allowing their children to participate in the meetings of the children’s councils because of their
own lack of knowledge on children’s rights, abuse of children by parents (especially stepmothers), and
alcohol abuse by parents.
The formation of children’s councils has a noticeable impact on the local governance process. Local
government representatives have accepted the need to involve children in decision-making at the
local level, recognising children’s unique knowledge of their own lives and concerns. The existence
of children’s councils has made policy-makers aware of the need for a children’s budget at local
governance level, strengthened communication between children and offcials, and led to better
service delivery. For example, orphans infected by hIv and AIDS are now being helped to get to
school and are being taken to medical centres to be given antiretroviral vaccine. There is more
effective identifcation of vulnerable children such as street children, child labourers and orphans.
The children’s councils have also had a positive impact on children at the personal level. Children
involved in the work of the councils are better equipped for participation: they are better informed
about their democratic rights and responsibilities, are more engaged with community matters, and
are more assertive.

16 Adapted from: K Mtengeti and M Couzens, Creating Space For
Child Participation In Local Governance in Tanzania: Save the Children
and Children’s Councils, Research on Poverty Alleviation, Children’s
Dignity Forum (CDF), Tanzania, 2010; see: www.repoa.or.tz/
EvERy ChILD’S RIGhT TO BE hEARD
11
chapter one • settinG the Context

a Five-year pLanninG proCess: ChiLdren LeadinGthe way
in india17
The government of Karnataka, in south-western India, has been trying for several years to initiate
a localised planning process, in which each local government within the State is expected to
assess its own needs and develop its plans for fve years ahead, with the active involvement of its
constituencies. These fve-year plans are to be the building blocks for a state-level planning process.
however, many local governments do not have access to the required information, skills and support
to develop such plans. In 2004, the State made several attempts to build local government capacity to
embark on a decentralised planning process for the next fve years. Concerned for Working Children
(CWC) was asked to support the 56 gram panchayats (village councils) in its local jurisdiction to
develop their own plans. CWC agreed, on condition that there was high-level participation of
children in the planning process.
The output was amazing. The children’s plans were comprehensive and substantiated with statistics
and data. Groups and issues, such as the problems facing people with disabilities, environmental
concerns and issues related to mobility and transport, were covered for the frst time in a fve-year
plan. The children also recorded the history of their villages and degradation of resources, made
maps that were accurate and informative, and often proposed solutions as well. The adults, especially
the members and staff of the gram panchayats, were astounded and in many cases shamefaced,
because the plans they themselves had drafted were very poor in comparison. As a result, the
children’s plans by and large became the offcial plans. But more than that, it has rejuvenated the
panchayats. The offcials and elected representatives seem to be sensing a purpose and relevance to
their work. They see their panchayats in a new light and have gained a deeper understanding of village
needs and concerns. The gap between the local government and the people has diminished.
A survey of the 56 gram panchayats shows that education and school-related issues recur in all the
children’s plans: compound walls, libraries, high school inaccessibility, school playgrounds, drinking
water, toilets, midday meals and teachers. Children also made a major difference to the planning
process. Previously, the plans used to be hijacked by powerful individuals to improve their own
lives, ‘people’s participation’ being a mere slogan that was useful during elections. Now, women,
children and entire panchayats contribute to the children-led plans through regular meetings and
data collection, and for the frst time the whole panchayat felt it owned the plan. The involvement
of children, their enthusiasm, their unerring sense of justice and their compassionate response to
people’s problems is what drew adults into this process. If children had not been the prime movers,
adults would not have been involved in such large numbers and the task of drawing up the plans
would have remained with the secretary of the gram panchayat, with some inputs from various
elected members. Adults are cynical and wary of change because of their conditioning through
experience of the ‘real world’, whereas children still have hope and the belief that they can change
the world. Their efforts, when they bear fruit, also serve as a role model for adults, who once again
begin to have hope. Children also grow up, and if they have a positive experience of participation in
governance, they will carry that with them into adulthood.

17 Adapted from: Concerned for Working Children, A Unique
Revolution: Children lead the way to decentralisation and civil society
participation, Bangalore, 2004, cited in International NGO Journal
vol. 1 (3), pp. 032–040, December 2006
12
addressinGthe
arGuments aGainst
ChiLdren’s partiCipation
Despite recognition in international law
through the UNCRC that child participation
is a fundamental human right, and despite
the powerful arguments as to the beneft it
brings, there is still considerable resistance
to its realisation. The arguments include:
Children lack the competence or
experience to participate. But children
have different levels of competence in
respect of different aspects of their lives.
Even very small children can tell you what
they like or dislike about school and why,
can produce ideas for making a lesson more
interesting, can offer help to other children.
Provided they are given appropriate
support and adequate information and
are allowed to express themselves in ways
that are meaningful to them – pictures,
poems, drama, photographs, as well as more
conventional discussions, interviews and
group work – all children can participate
in issues that are important to them.
Indeed, babies and toddlers can be seen as
participating in varying degrees depending
upon the willingness of adults to listen to
what they are saying. For example, a study of
Japanese nursery school children found that
most disputes were resolved by the children
themselves, with skilful use of compromise
and bargaining, often involving moral
justifcations.18 Such evidence demonstrates
the capacities of young children to engage
effectively in taking responsibility, and
negotiating solutions. The creation of settings
that maximise their opportunities to explore
and initiate activities themselves is a means
of fulflling the spirit of the UNCRC.
Indeed, there are many areas where young
children can demonstrate equal or superior
competence; for example, in their capacity
to acquire IT skills, remember where things
are, use their imaginations, express creativity,
love and compassion, mediate between
arguing parents, show willingness to forgive,
learn new languages. In order to respect this
competence in various areas, adults must
learn to hear and see what children are
saying and doing without rejecting it simply
because they are young.
Children must learn to take
responsibility before they can be
granted rights. But newborn babies have
rights and they cannot be expected to
carry responsibilities. And one of the more
effective ways of encouraging children to
accept responsibility is to frst respect their
rights. If children are given the chance to
share their ideas in a group and to have
them taken seriously, then they will learn
that others, too, have a right to be heard
which must also be respected.

BuiLdinG CompetenCe in very younG ChiLdren in the uK19
In one nursery in the UK, with 20 children up to the age of four years, the staff decided that the
children could help themselves to fruit and water when they wanted to. Initially, the children asked
for permission, until they understood that they could help themselves. Some spilt the water, but they
learned to mop up the spills and to pour the water more carefully, as they acquired experience. In
being consulted in this practical way about what they actually preferred, the children were able to
behave more responsibly and the staff were free to do other things.

18 M Killen M and L Nucci, ‘Morality, autonomy and social conﬂict’
in M Killen and D hart (eds) Morality in Everyday Life, Cambridge
University Press, Newyork, 1995
19 J Miller, Never too young: How young children can take responsibility
and make decisions, National Earlyyears Network/Save the
Children, London, 1997
EvERy ChILD’S RIGhT TO BE hEARD
13
chapter one • settinG the Context
Giving children the right to be heard
will take away their childhood. Article
12 does not impose an obligation on
children to participate. Rather, it provides
a right for children to do so. And it is a
romanticised view of childhood to imagine
that they are not making decisions and
taking responsibilities from a very early
age. Even small children in very protected
environments might be involved in making
decisions about friendships, coping with
parental divorce and negotiating between
parents in conﬂict, deciding what games to
play and negotiating rules. Children’s right
to be heard, in fact, is critical to improving
the nature and quality of the childhood they
experience. And for many children it can
help them reclaim their stolen childhood, as
evidenced in the example below.
It will lead to lack of respect for
parents. Listening to children is about
respecting them and helping them learn
to value the importance of respecting
others. It is not about teaching them to
ignore their parents. Indeed, Article 29
of the UNCRC clearly states that one of
the aims of education is to teach children
respect for their parents. Listening is a way
of resolving conﬂict, fnding solutions and
promoting understanding – all of which are
benefcial for family life. It can be diffcult
for some parents to respect children’s right
to participate when they feel that they
themselves have never been respected
as possessors of rights. Nevertheless, this
does not imply the need to hold back from
encouraging children to participate but,
rather, the need to be sensitive in doing

ChiLdren LearninGto taKe responsiBiLity in sChooL
in enGLand20
A junior school (7–11 years) in a particularly deprived area of England had been characterised by
high levels of violence, disaffection, bullying and truancy. A new headteacher decided to involve the
whole school community in making the school a safe and effective educational environment. She
consulted with all the children, as well as teachers and administrative staff, on what changes were
needed. The outcomes of the consultation included:
• the establishment of a school council in which the children had genuine power; they were involved,
for example, in the development of all school policies and in the recruitment of staff
• regular ‘circle time’ where all the children in the class had an opportunity to discuss any issues of
concern
• the creation of a ‘bullying box’ where children could give information, in confdence, about having
been bullied
• the appointment of ‘guardian angels’ – children who volunteered to befriend children who were
without friends, being bullied, or simply in need of support
• the appointment of child mediators who would help children resolve conﬂicts in the playground.
As a result of these changes, the children were happier, achieved better educational results, and
acquired considerable skills of negotiation, democratic decision-making and social responsibility.
The experience demonstrated that young children are capable of accepting considerable levels of
responsibility when invested with trust and support. Indeed, children can act to protect themselves
and others when their rights are respected. The provision of training and encouragement for the
child mediation system enabled the children to help each other without having to turn to adults,
although adults were available if they were needed. By respecting and investing in children’s active
engagement, the children acquired skills and confdence that would have been denied them in a more
traditional and authoritarian environment.

20 P Alderson, It’s our school, Institute of Education, London, 1998
14
so. Children should not be led to believe
that they alone have a right to have a voice;
wherever possible, their families should be
involved in the process. Large changes in
a society often take a generation to get
fully recognised or accepted. In some parts
of the world, recognition of a child’s right
to a voice within the family has begun to
surface, but efforts are required to ensure
its progression.
Children cannot have the right to be
heard until this right is respected for
adults. But if societies are to build more
opportunities for their citizens to be heard,
it is important that this process begins with
children. Encouraging children from the
earliest ages to engage in critical enquiry,
challenge abuses of rights, and acquire the
confdence and capacity to express their
views will contribute to wider societal
change. Furthermore, as children have
exercised their right to be heard, often
they have also actually opened up spaces
for adults’ participation, and served as role
models inspiring adults to demand their
right to be heard.
Children’s rights is a Western concept
being imposed on other countries. It has
been argued that the very concept of child
participation, which promotes the visibility
and individual rights of a child, is a Westernimposed principle, which conﬂicts with the
cultural commitment to the primacy of the
family in many other cultures. However,
there was no interference by ‘Western’
powers in the independent process of
debate and ratifcation of the UNCRC by
sovereign governments of north, south, east
and west. In the African region, for example,
the Organisation for African Unity (now the
African Union), recognising the importance
of children’s rights, developed a Charter

ChiLdren partiCipatinGto CLaim ChiLdhood riGhts
in niCaraGua21
A group of children aged between 8 and 12 years, working in the coffee plantations in Nicaragua,
met together to plan a campaign to defend their right to play. They were concerned that “A lot of kids
work on farms and plantations and they come home worn out, so they don‘t get to play. At harvest time the
kids work all day and there’s no time to play.” The problems are compounded by parental attitudes: “Our
parents believe that boys have more rights, and they give them more freedom than the girls. Parents tell girls,
‘go and fnd a job to do, and don’t be playing’.”
They consulted with other children who expressed the view that play was important because:
• It’s our right – and not just children, also big people.
• It makes us feel good.
• It helps us share and express our feelings.
• It helps us make friends and not be shy.
• It helps kids relate to older people and feel respected.
• It helps boys and girls relate to each other with respect.
• We learn to share games, because not everyone knows the same games.
Accordingly, they undertook research into the state of play within their communities, how girls
were discriminated against, and what forms traditional play had taken within the community. They
followed up the research by holding public meetings, and approaching the District Children and
youth Committee to promote positive attitudes towards children’s right to play. The Committee
responded positively to the children’s message and has agreed to develop its own action plan for a
“more playful municipality”.

21 ‘Nicaraguan Children’s Right to Play Campaign, 2010’, www.commonthreads.org.uk/righttoplayupdates.htm
EvERy ChILD’S RIGhT TO BE hEARD
15
chapter one • settinG the Context
on the Rights and Freedoms of the Child,
taking the UNCRC as a starting point,
and adapted it to the African context.
The Charter reaffrms the importance of
children being afforded a voice and being
taken seriously, both within judicial and
administrative proceedings and at the wider
societal level.24 In addition, history and
mythology of the non-Western world has
many examples of children and young adults
who have had a ‘defning’ role in their own
lives and in the lives of their communities
long before the UNCRC came into being
in the modern world.
Furthermore, these concerns fail to
acknowledge the strong affrmation of the
family and respect for its privacy embodied
within the UNCRC. In its preamble, the
Convention recognises the family as the
fundamental group of society, necessary
for children’s development and entitled
to protection in order to provide for the
growth and wellbeing of all its members.
Article 5 stresses the obligation of the state
to respect the rights and responsibilities of
the family, Article 18 imposes obligations on
the state to provide support for parents,
and Article 29 asserts that one of the aims

seeinG ChiLdren partiCipate promotes parentaL support
For that proCess
Evidence from families whose children have opportunities for participation presents a consistent
pattern. There is often initial resistance: fear that children will be distracted from their school work
or from domestic responsibilities, concern that it will make them lose respect for their parents or
that they as parents lack the competence to get involved. however, once parents are informed about
the aims of the initiative and its methodology, these fears almost invariably diminish and are replaced
by a growing pride in their children’s achievements.22 Indeed, in a UNICEF review of the impact of
child participation in South Asia, many parents and children cite improved family relationships, and
contributions to the local community, as positive outcomes associated with participation.23 Parents
value children’s increased confdence and skills. Many expressed the view that participation had opened
up new opportunities for their children. Some parents felt that their children were more respectful
to them after being involved in participatory initiatives, and others that their daughters’ enhanced
confdence meant that they were better placed to cope with their future lives. In some cases, children
felt that parental attitudes had changed, and that this had led to less physical punishment.
Interestingly, in one project in Pakistan which involved working boys, local community members
expressed the view that their activities had brought about change in the attitudes of the whole
community. The children, too, felt that adults were less rigid and friendlier towards them as a result
of the project. These benefts are also evident in a project in the Maldives to raise parental awareness
of the value of listening to children, particularly in the context of growing levels of delinquency,
drug misuse and family breakdown. The programme seeks to help parents become more responsive
to their children, by providing them with the necessary skills. It also provides older siblings with
ideas on how to communicate with and stimulate smaller children to grow and develop through
interaction: the aim is to help them see that children need more than simply being watched. As a
consequence of this work, many fathers, as well as mothers, have come to realise the benefts of
dialogue and communication with their young children, some regretting that they did not understand
its importance when their other children were younger.

22 G Lansdown, ‘Involving children in shaping our work’, internal
Save the Children study, London, 2003
23 UNICEF Regional Offce South Asia, Wheel of Change, Children
and Young People’s Participation in South Asia, Kathmandu, 2004
24 Articles 4 and 7, African Charter for the Rights and Welfare of
the Child, OAU Doc. CAB/LEG/24.9/49 (1990), entered into
force 29 November 1999
16
of education is for children to develop
respect for their parents. In other words,
the continued viability and strength of
the family is central to the realisation of
children’s rights.
It is also important to recognise the strong
concept of community, mutuality and
responsibility embodied within the human
rights discourse. Indeed, Article 29 of the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights
states that “Everyone has duties to the
community in which alone the free and full
development of his personality is possible.”
The signifcance of the word ‘alone’ here
is that it recognises that individuals do not
exist as isolated beings but live in societies,
towards which they must act responsibly if
they are to develop their true humanity.25
Understood in this way, it becomes clear
that human rights affrm rather than
challenge much of the cultural underpinning
of many societies across the world.
That said, it is probably true to say that
the practice of listening to children and
taking their views seriously is not suffciently
recognised in the culture of any society.
But the fact that people have been treated
in a particular way in the past does not
justify continuing to do so in the future. As
new standards of respect for human rights
evolve, so behaviours and cultures need to
adapt to reﬂect those changes. For example,
in most societies, women have traditionally
been denied access to power, to economic
equality, and to protection from violence.
However, it is now widely recognised that
attitudes towards women must change
and that there must be legal protection
to promote their equality with men. So it
is with children; the UNCRC challenges
all cultures to review their attitudes and
behaviour towards children. The way in
which these changes are introduced needs
to be sensitive to cultural traditions and
religious beliefs, but these should not be
used to deny children the right to be heard.
25 F Klug, Values for a Godless Age, Penguin, London, 2000
EvERy ChILD’S RIGhT TO BE hEARD
17
chapter one • settinG the Context

understandinG partiCipation in the aFriCan Context26
Participation of children as stated in the UNCRC is often seen as foreign, superfcial and alien to
the African and Ugandan culture. In any discussions on issues concerning children, it elicits political,
cultural, social and emotional concerns. It is often challenged as elitist and interpreted as an intrusion
into the jurisdiction of the family head and a threat to parental authority. Although adults believe that
children have rights to life, health and education, many are not convinced children have the right to
participate in such community issues as decision-making. Child participation is restricted because
African family relationships are divided into categories and role expectations are clearly defned. In
some communities children are not allowed to speak among adults without permission and doing so
can bring disgrace on the parents and is punishable.
however, child participation has been practised in the African context for decades. But the form of
participation in traditional African society is beginning to disappear because modern-day living has
led to the loss of these practices. The misunderstanding that child participation causes today emerges
from old contexts. Many African traditions practise child participation without realising that they are
doing so – making it possible for children to access useful information and contribute to decisions.
Sitting round the fre, sharing folklore, stories and songs, elderly people always gave children the
opportunity to participate actively. This included questions and answers, the sharing of opinions and
personal interpretation of the messages in a story. Dances within the community also prompted
discussions around cultural practices and morals. While some of these forums had negative aspects
such as encouraging stereotyping, early marriage and the subordination of women, they nevertheless
do solicit the views of children.
Although children’s rights are enshrined in laws that were developed outside Uganda, these arose
from the practices of different communities around the world and have been accepted by the
Government of Uganda as good principles for Uganda. The differences arise in the articulation
of rights, which generally have not been directly translated into any of the African languages.
A broader and clearer understanding of what child participation is and the development of skills
and knowledge on how to involve children within institutions are required, if child participation is
to be promoted effectively.

26 The National Child Participation Guide for Uganda, Creating an
Environment for Children to be Heard, Ministry of Gender, Labour
and Social Development, Uganda Child Rights NGO Network
and UNICEF-Uganda, 2008
18
ChiLdren’s partiCipation:
• acknowledges children’s fundamental right to be part of
every decision that affects them
• applies to all children in all countries without exception,
including babies and very young children
• necessitates learning new ways of listening and hearing
the forms of communication by children of different ages
• represents a challenge to all governments, requiring not
only a cultural change, but also the introduction of new
legislation, policies, services and programmes
• demands different ways of working, and necessitates
bringing children in to social, economic, political and
cultural debates
• respects children, along with adults, as citizens of their
societies: they have a stake now, as well as in the future,
in what happens in their lives
• recognises the unique and invaluable contribution that
children can make to building the society around them
• leads to multiple benefts including personal development,
improved decision-making and outcomes, greater
protection, and enhanced capacity for citizenship and
democratic engagement
• offers a win-win outcome.
ChAPTER ONE
in summary
Chapter two
legal analysis of article 12
john sanders
Chapter two
legal analysis of article 12
article 12 para 1
Assuring the right to express views
Every child capable of forming his or her own views
The right to express views freely
The right to express views on all matters affecting them
The obligation to give due weight in accordance with age and maturity
article 12 para 2
The right to be heard in judicial or administrative proceedings
The right to be heard directly or through a representative body
Representation in a manner consistent with procedural rules of national law
19
In order to understand Article 12, it is
necessary to unpack the language and
look in detail at the meaning of each of its
provisions. This chapter looks at the specifc
wording of the text of Article 12 and
provides an analysis of how the Committee
on the Rights of the Child interprets that
wording and the consequent implications
for law, policy and practice. The detailed
guidance on how to implement those
provisions in a range of different contexts
is elaborated in the subsequent chapters of
the handbook.
artiCLe 12, para 1
1 assuring the right to express views
Article 12 states that its provisions must
be “assured” to the child. In other words,
governments have an obligation to take
all appropriate measures to ensure that it
is fully realised for all children. This means
that the necessary legislation and policies
must be in place to enable all children to
exercise their right to be heard. Additional
measures will be needed to ensure that
groups of children likely to experience social
exclusion are afforded equal rights to be
heard. For example, children with disabilities,
who are often denied the right to education,
and marginalised within their communities,
will need support to enable them to
express their views. Article 7 of the UN
Convention on the Rights of Persons with
Disabilities emphasises that children with
disabilities must be able to exercise their
rights to express views and have them taken
seriously on an equal basis with others and
that they should be provided with age- and
ChAPTER TWO
LeGaL anaLysis oF artiCLe 12

tips and teChniques on ListeninGto ChiLdren
with CommuniCation diFFiCuLties27
‘Communication passport’ – This can be a form or leaﬂet that belongs to a child and provides
information on how they communicate, for example, how they will indicate ‘yes’ and ‘no’.
Communication tools – Pictures of items and symbols; perhaps the most important one is the
‘stop’ symbol.
planning a meeting – If you are planning to meet with a child, write a letter to the child in words
and symbols, letting them know that you are going to visit them. Include a picture of yourself with
the letter.
helping the child prepare for a meeting – A blank board can be used and the child could be
helped to stick on pictures and symbols representing what they want to say.
‘all about me’ – It is good for children with communication diffculties to have pictures of people
in their life who are important to them.
‘medical passport’ – This could be pictures of different types of medication for different ailments.
The child could then point at the appropriate one and show other people if, for example, they have a
stomach upset or headache.
‘talking mats’ – These can be developed to help children prepare for different situations. Pictures
can be taken of children going to different events or settings, such as the doctor’s surgery. These can
then be put into sequence and talked through with the child.
‘Chat Box’ – This can be a box flled with pictures or objects of reference that the young person
can use to symbolise what they want or need; for example, a spoon means that they are hungry; a
ball or doll means they want to be able to play; a range of different smiley and non-smiley faces could
be used to enable the child to express how they feel.
mosaic approach – It is important to use different forms of communication, depending on the
situation and the particular needs of the child.

27 See www.triangle.org.uk for further information on communication with children with disabilities.
20
disability-appropriate assistance to enable
them to do so. Governments should ensure
that children with disabilities are equipped
with, and supported to use, whatever mode
of communication is necessary to facilitate
the expression of their views.28 Efforts must
also be made to enable children who speak
minority languages to have opportunities to
express their views.
The obligation under Article 12 applies to
children as individuals, to specifc groups
of children and to children collectively. For
example:
• Children as individuals must be heard
when decisions or actions are being taken
that affect them specifcally, such as in
judicial or administrative proceedings, in
matters of medical treatment, in decisions
over where and with whom they live, or
levels of contact with parents following
separation or divorce.
• Specifc groups of children – such as
girls, children with disabilities, or children
from indigenous communities – must be
heard when legislation or policies are
being introduced which affect them. In the
education feld, for example, this might
include proposals relating to hygiene and
sanitation, inclusive education, strategies to
make schools more physically accessible,
or policies concerning bilingual education.
• Children as a constituency must have
opportunities to be heard and to inform
the development of legislation, policies and
programmes that affect all children, such
as national plans of action (NPAs), Poverty
Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSPs), access
to healthcare, or protection from all forms
of violence.
2 every child capable of forming his or
her own views
Article 12 applies to every child “capable of
forming his or her own views”. The Committee
stresses that governments should start from
a presumption that a child has the capacity
to form a view: it is not up to the child to
prove her or his capacity. Nor is it necessary
for the child to have a comprehensive
understanding of an issue affecting her or
him: simply that she or he is capable of
forming a view on the matter. Children
from the very youngest ages are able to
form views, even where they are not able
to express them verbally. Tiny babies, for
28 Article 7, para 3, UN Convention on the Rights of Persons
with Disabilities
29 D O’Donnell, The Right Of Children To Be Heard:
Children’s right to have their views taken into account
and to participate in legal and administrative proceedings,
UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre, Florence, 2009,
http://www.juvenilejusticepanel.org/resource/items/D/a/
DanielODonnellUNICEFIRCRightChildrenToBeheardApr09EN.
pdf

riGhts in the Constitution29
One approach to ‘assuring’ the right to be heard is to incorporate the principle into the Constitution,
thereby establishing it as an overarching entitlement in all matters affecting children. For example:
Constitution of ecuador 1998 – contains extensive references to the rights of children, including
the “right to be consulted in matters affecting them”.
Constitution of Finland 1995 – has been amended by the addition of a sentence providing that:
“Children shall be treated equally and as individuals and they shall be allowed to inﬂuence matters
pertaining to themselves to a degree corresponding to their level of development.”
Constitution of poland 1997 – provides that: “Organs of public authority and persons responsible
for children, in the course of establishing the rights of a child, shall consider and, insofar as possible,
give priority to the views of the child.”

EvERy ChILD’S RIGhT TO BE hEARD
21
chapter tWo • LeGaL anaLysis oF artiCLe 12
example, speak a complex ‘language’ and
adults who can ‘read’ it can provide more
sensitive and appropriate care.30 Indeed, the
Committee interprets the term ‘views’ as
going beyond developed views, to include
feelings, insights, interpretations, concerns
and ideas. Implementation of Article 12
requires recognition of and respect for
non-verbal forms of communications such
as play, body language, facial expression,
or drawing and painting, through which
very young children make choices, express
preferences and demonstrate understanding
of their environment.

estaBLishinGthe riGht to Be heard in LeGisLation
• in Kazakhstan, the rights of the Child act, 2002 provides that every child has the right
to express his or her opinion, the right to freedom of conscience and the right to participate in
public life.
• in south africa,article 10 of the Children’s act 2005 states that: “Every child that is of such
an age, maturity and stage of development as to be able to participate in any matter concerning that
child has the right to participate in an appropriate way and views expressed by the child must be given
due consideration.” The particular signifcance is that Article 10 falls within the General Principles
chapter of the Children’s Act, which is like a mini Bill of Rights, and that it applies not only in the
Children’s Act, but in all laws and actions.
• in australia, the Child,youth and Families act 2005 requires that decisions affecting
children “be reached by collaboration and consensus, wherever practicable”. Everyone involved in the
decision-making process must be “provided with suffcient information, in a language and by a method
that they can understand, and through an interpreter if necessary, to allow them to participate fully in
the process [and they should be] provided with the opportunity to involve other persons to assist them to
participate fully in the process”.

even the younGest ChiLdren’s riGhts must Be respeCted
The Committee on the Rights of the Child, in its General Comment No. 7, Implementing Child
Rights in Early Childhood, states that:
“Respect for the young child’s agency – as a participant in family, community and society – is
frequently overlooked, or rejected as inappropriate on the grounds of age and immaturity. In
many countries and regions, traditional beliefs have emphasized young children’s need for training
and socialization. They have been regarded as undeveloped, lacking even basic capacities for
understanding, communicating and making choices. They have been powerless within their families,
and often voiceless and invisible within society. The Committee wishes to emphasize that Article 12
applies both to younger and to older children. As holders of rights, even the youngest children are
entitled to express their views …young children are acutely sensitive to their surroundings and very
rapidly acquire understanding of the people, places and routines in their lives, along with awareness
of their own unique identity. They make choices and communicate their feelings, ideas and wishes in
numerous ways, long before they are able to communicate through the conventions of spoken or
written language.” 31

30 General Comment No. 7, ‘Implementing Child Rights in Early
Childhood’, CRC/C/GC/7, 2005
31 Ibid.
22
The UNCRC therefore does not impose a
lower age limit on the right to participate,
and the Committee on the Rights of the
Child discourages the introduction of age
limits, either in law or in practice, that
restrict the child’s right to participation
in decision-making. It also emphasises the
necessity to ensure that children with
disabilities are enabled to exercise their
right to participate on an equal basis with
other children.32
3the right to express views freely
The child has the “right to express those
views freely”. This means that children must
be able to express views without pressure.
They must not be manipulated or subjected
to undue inﬂuence from others. The child
must be allowed to express his or her
own views and not those of others. It is
also important to recognise that article
12 does not imply any obligation on
children to express their views. It is a
right not a duty, and the child can choose
whether or not to exercise it.
In order to express views freely, children
need:
• information which is relevant, appropriate
and made available in forms and at a level
which they can understand. They also
need to have information from anyone
responsible for taking decisions affecting
the child, about options available to them,
the nature of any decisions that are being
taken, and their consequences
• ‘spaces’ where they are afforded the time,
encouragement and support to enable
them to develop and articulate their views
clearly and confdently. For example, if a
school is involving children in its governing
body, it needs to provide time for children
to prepare for meetings, or other forums
where they can express their views.
It also needs to ensure that they are
provided with information in forms that
they can understand, that all members of
the governing body are respectful of the
children and that the children are given
the time and opportunity to speak in
meetings. Efforts must be made to explain
any language or issues that might be
unfamiliar to the children
• safety to explore and express their views
without fear of criticism or punishment.
Children should feel confdent that they
are allowed to express concerns and
opinions, even when they challenge
those of adults. For example, children in
Nicaragua have observed that when they
participate in evaluation projects with
non-governmental organisations (NGOs),
only the positive things they say about the
NGOs ever get reported. It is necessary
for children to feel safe to articulate
negative concerns and criticisms, and for
those views to be taken seriously.
4the right to express views on all
matters affecting them
The Manual of Human Rights Reporting
states that the right recognised in Article 12
applies “in all matters affecting” children,
even those not specifcally covered by the
UNCRC, when those same questions have
a particular interest for the child or when
they might affect his or her life, for example,
issues relating to the environment or
transport.33 Most aspects of decision-making
from the family to the international level
have either a direct or an indirect impact on
children and can therefore be defned as
legitimate matters of concern; for example,
schooling, transport, budget expenditure,
urban planning, poverty reduction or social
protection. The Committee supports a very
wide interpretation of “all matters affecting”
children, recognising that so doing enables
children to engage in the social processes of
the community and society, and that it can
also enhance the quality of solutions.
32 General Comment No. 9, ‘The Rights of Children with
Disabilities’, CRC/C/GC/9, September 2006
33 M S Pais, ‘The Convention on the Rights of the Child’ in Manual
of Human Rights Reporting, OhChR, Geneva, 1997
EvERy ChILD’S RIGhT TO BE hEARD
23
chapter tWo • LeGaL anaLysis oF artiCLe 12
5the obligation to give due weight in
accordance with age and maturity
“Yes, most schools have a school council, but
when you’re doing the actual thing, like the
meeting or whatever, and they listen to you
for that hour or half an hour, and after that
you don’t hear anything about it, it’s all just
forgotten about. It’s like, what was the point
in expressing all your views when they don’t
even do anything about it?” Group of children
in the UK34
The views of the child must be “given
due weight in accordance with the age and
maturity of the child”. It is not suffcient
to listen to children. It is also necessary
to give their views serious consideration
when making decisions. Their concerns,
perspectives and ideas must inform
decisions that affect their lives. However, the
weight to be given to children’s views needs
qualifying. It must take account of the age
and maturity of the child: in other words,
the child’s level of understanding of the
implications of the matter. It is important to
note that age by itself does not necessarily
provide guidance as to children’s levels of
understanding. Many very young children
can display a high level of maturity.
The impact on the child of any particular
matter must also be taken into account.
The greater the impact on the life of a child,
the more important it is to ensure that an
appropriate assessment of the child’s age and
maturity has been undertaken. For example,
if a healthy young child expresses a view
that she wishes to play outside in the cold,
the consequences will not be serious: she
can return inside if it is uncomfortable. The
level of risk is low. However, if, for example,
a child soldier wishes to return home to his
community from a camp, a decision about
this must take into account the level of risk
he is likely to be exposed to, and how well
he understands the nature of that risk.
When it is not possible to comply with the
child’s views, he or she should always be
informed of the decision and the reasons
behind it.
In considering the weight to be given to
the child’s views, it is also necessary to pay
attention to Article 5 of the UNCRC, which
stresses that the direction and guidance
provided by parents, legal guardians, or
members of the extended family or
community must take account of children’s
evolving capacities to exercise their rights35
(see also page 36 for a more detailed

ChiLdren’s CapaCity to taKe responsiBiLity36
Research into young people’s lives in rural Bolivia indicates that from the ages of 13–16 years they
are negotiating decisions about future work or education and, despite major structural constraints
limiting their choices, are nevertheless exercising clear agency in deciding whether to stay at school
or to start work, whether to work within the local community or to migrate to seek better fnancial
possibilities, whether to opt for a rural or an urban lifestyle. Furthermore, they exhibit a strong sense
of family responsibility and their choices are heavily inﬂuenced by the importance of balancing their
own wishes with the needs of the family. This research highlights the fact that not only do young
people of this age demonstrate the capacity to make informed choices based on realistic assessments
of the options available to them, but that in doing so, they are aware of and able to take account of
other perspectives than their own.

34 C Davey, T Burke and C Shaw, Children’s Participation in DecisionMaking: A Children’s Views Report, National Participation Forum,
2010
35 G Lansdown, The Evolving Capacities of the Child, UNICEF
Innocenti Research Centre/Save the Children, Florence, 2005
36 S Punch, ‘youth transitions and interdependent adult-child relations
in rural Bolivia’, Journal of Rural Studies, 18 (2): 123–133, 2002
24
explanation). The greater their capacities,
the more autonomy and responsibility to
take decisions for themselves they should
be given.
artiCLe 12, para 2
1the right to be heard in judicial or
administrative proceedings
Article 12, para 2 specifes that in order to
ensure the realisation of the right embodied
in para 1, children have the “right to be heard
in any judicial or administrative proceedings
affecting [them]”.37The Committee
emphasises that this provision applies to
all relevant judicial proceedings related to
children’s lives. This includes, for example,
cases of decision-making in respect of
separation of parents, and custody, care and
adoption; children in conﬂict with the law;
child victims of physical or psychological
violence, sexual abuse or other crimes;
healthcare; social security; unaccompanied
minors; asylum-seeking and refugee children,
and those who have been victims of armed
conﬂict and emergencies. The reference
to administrative proceedings extends the
entitlement to be heard in proceedings
to include, for example, education, health,
environment, living conditions, or protection.
Both types of proceedings may involve
alternative dispute mechanisms such as
mediation and arbitration.
The right to be heard applies to
proceedings which are both:
• initiated by the child, such as a complaint
against ill-treatment, or appeal against a
school exclusion
• initiated by others in which the child has
an interest, such as parental separation or
adoption.
Children are entitled to know what rights
they have to be heard, how they will be
able to be heard in any proceedings and
how decisions are made. Governments
therefore are encouraged to introduce
legislative measures that will require any
decision-makers in judicial or administrative
proceedings to provide information to
children about the process for listening to
them, how their views will be considered
and what weight will be given to their
views, as well as the mechanisms that will
facilitate the exercise of this right. (See also
pages 51–62 for more information on what
measures are needed to give effect to the
right to be heard in proceedings.)
2the right to be heard directly or
through a representative body
Children have a right to be heard
“either directly or through a representative
or appropriate body”. In other words,
children who are capable of forming
a view themselves should be given an
opportunity to decide how they wish to
be represented, and whether to be heard
directly. The Committee recommends that,
wherever possible, the child must be given
the opportunity to be heard directly in
any proceedings.
However, in some circumstances there will
be procedural rules which require that this
is done through a representative. Where this
is the case, it is important to take account of
the following issues:
• It is the child’s own views that must
be transmitted, rather than those of
the representative. The role of the
representative must not be confused
with the obligation to ensure that the
best interests of the child are a primary
consideration. (see also page 32 on best
interests). The views of the child must be
conveyed accurately to the proceedings,
irrespective of whether their representative
considers that those views, if acted on,
would be in the child’s best interests.
37 Article 12(2) also needs to be read in conjunction with
Article 14 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political
Rights (ICCPR), which sets out the right of every person to
have access to the courts for the determination of his or her
rights and obligations.
EvERy ChILD’S RIGhT TO BE hEARD
25
chapter tWo • LeGaL anaLysis oF artiCLe 12

exampLes oF LeGisLation estaBLishinG ChiLdren’s
riGht to Be heard in judiCiaL proCeedinGs
south africa
The Children’s Act 2005 introduces a general principle that children can bring matters before the
court and then goes on to affrm that when they are involved in court proceedings, their views must
be properly considered:
Section 14
Every child has the right to bring, and to be assisted in bringing, a matter to a court, provided that
matter falls within the jurisdiction of that court.
Section 61
(1) The presiding offcer in a matter before a children’s court must –
(a) allow a child involved in the matter to express a view and preference in the matter if the
court fnds that the child, given the child’s age, maturity and stage of development and any
special needs that the child may have, is able to participate in the proceedings and the child
chooses to do so;
(b) record the reasons if the court fnds that the child is unable to participate in the proceedings
or is unwilling to express a view or preference in the matter; and
(c) intervene in the questioning or cross-examination of a child if the court fnds that this would
be in the best interests of the child.
Latin america
Most countries in Latin America have children’s codes, many of which recognise the right of children
to be heard in legal and administrative proceedings.38
Guatemalan Children’s Code, Articles 119(a) and 123(b)
The children’s code in Guatemala recognises the right of all children to be heard at all stages of
judicial proceedings, and states that this must be in their own language, thus enabling the rights of
indigenous children to be heard.
Paraguayan Children’s Code, Article 19
In Paraguay, children can bring cases to specialised child courts which have competence over cases
concerning paternity, guardianship, custody, foster care, adoption, child abuse, child labour and issues
surrounding health and education. The judge is obliged to listen to the child, according to their age
and maturity, before resolving any matter before the court.
Costa Rica and Colombia both have general laws within their children’s codes which require that
children’s right to be listened to be taken seriously in judicial and civil proceedings.
tunisia
Child Protection Code, Article 10 39
“The Code guarantees the child the right freely to express his or her views, which should be taken
into consideration in accordance with his or her age and degree of maturity. To that end the child will
be given a special opportunity to express his or her views and to be heard in all legal procedures and
with regard to all social and educational measures concerning his or her situation.”
According to the State Party Report of the Tunisian government, “That provision has, since its entry
into force, been implemented several times, both through the intervention of the Child Protection
Offcers and the family court, the juvenile court or the juvenile tribunal. Indeed, article 35 requires
the Child Protection Offcer and the family court, in the event of a notifcation, to listen to the
child and to take his or her views into consideration. Article 90 calls on the juvenile court to hold
discussions in the child’s presence with all parties concerned on the procedures to be taken, with the
child having a free hand commensurate with his or her degree of maturity to discuss such measures.”

38 Taken from D O’Donnell, Law Reform and Implementation of the
Convention on the Rights of the Child, UNICEF Innocenti Research
Centre, Florence, 2007
39 Third periodic report of Tunisia to the Committee on the Rights
of the Child, CRC/C/TUN/3, 10 November 2008
26
• The representative must not seek to
represent the interests of any other
person, such as the parents, or institution
or body such as a residential home or
local municipality. Their role is exclusively
to represent the views of the child.
• The method chosen for conveying views
is determined by the child, where the
child is competent to do so (see page 56
for more information on determining
competence).
• Representatives must have the necessary
knowledge and understanding of the
relevant proceedings and how they
work in order to advise and support
the child effectively. They must also have
experience of working with children and,
where relevant, must have had training
in communicating with children with
disabilities.
• The representative may be the child’s
parent, a lawyer, or a social worker or
other type of advocate. However, in some
circumstances there will be a conﬂict
of interests between the child and their
most obvious representative. For example,
where there is a dispute between parents
over custody, or where there is concern
relating to abuse of the child by a parent,
it is not appropriate for the child to be
represented by her or his parent.
• Codes of conduct should be developed
for representatives who are appointed to
represent the child’s views.
3 representation in a manner consistent
with procedural rules of national law
The opportunity for representation must be
“in a manner consistent with the procedural
rules of national law”. This provision
should not be interpreted as allowing
possible inadequate solutions contained
in procedural law to restrict or prevent
enjoyment of this fundamental right. On
the contrary, governments are encouraged
to comply with the basic rules of fair
proceedings, such as the right to a defence
and the right to access one’s own fles. The
provision indicates the need for special
procedures to ensure the implementation of
the child’s right to be heard.
Where any rules of procedure are not
adhered to, it must be possible for the
decision of the court or administrative
authority to be challenged and overturned,
substituted or referred back for further
judicial consideration.
EvERy ChILD’S RIGhT TO BE hEARD
27
chapter tWo • LeGaL anaLysis oF artiCLe 12

new ZeaLand Code oF ConduCt For ChiLdren’s Lawyers
(extraCt)40
Guiding principles
• children must be given reasonable opportunities to be heard in any judicial and administrative
proceedings affecting them.
• children have the right to express their views and their views must be taken into account.
• In all proceedings affecting the child, s/he must be given reasonable opportunities to express his or
her views.
• children have the right to information about the case in which they are involved, including
information on the progress and outcome of that case, unless the lawyer considers that it would
be contrary to the welfare and best interests of the child.
• children have the right to competent representation from experienced and skilled lawyers.
role of lawyer for the child
• the lawyer is to provide independent representation and advice to the child.
• the lawyer has a duty to put before the court the views of the child but should not require the
child to express a view if he or she does not want to do so. however, the lawyer shall not be
required to put before the Court any views expressed to him or her in confdence.
• Where a conﬂict arises between a child’s views and information relevant to the welfare and best
interests of the child, the lawyer shall:
– discuss with the child the issues and the lawyer’s obligations;
– attempt to resolve the conﬂict with the child;
– advise the Court of the lawyer’s position and, in the case where the lawyer is unable to resolve
the conﬂict and as a matter of professional judgment can advocate only the child’s views, invite
the Court to appoint a lawyer in respect of welfare and best interests issues.
representation of particular children
• the lawyer shall represent the child in accordance with the child’s welfare and best interests.
• In deciding whether or not the child by virtue of their age, maturity or disability is unable to
express a view, or able to express a view but his or her age, maturity or disability are such that any
view should be treated with caution, the lawyer shall be guided by the presumptions that, frst, the
older the child, the more representation shall be in accordance with the child’s instructions, and,
secondly, the younger the child, the more representation shall be in accordance with the child’s
welfare and best interests.
• the lawyer has a duty to see that other factors that impact on the child’s welfare and best
interests are put before the Court.
• the lawyer has a duty to put before the court any views which the child may express but
should not require the child to express a view if he or she does not want or is not able to do so.
however, the lawyer shall not be required to put before the Court any views expressed to him or
her in confdence.
• In determining what best serves the child’s welfare and best interests, the lawyer must take into
account the principle that decisions affecting the child should be made and implemented within a
time frame that is appropriate to the child’s sense of time.

40 Extract from: ‘Practice note – Lawyer for the Child: Code of
Conduct’, Family Court of New Zealand, http://www.justice.govt.
nz/courts/family-court/practice-and-procedure/practice-notes/
practice-note-lawyer-for-child
28

a CheCKList For representation oF ChiLdren in the usa41
The National Association for the Counsel of Children, in the United States, encourages all jurisdictions
to adopt a system of legal representation of children which satisfes the following checklist. The
representation scheme should ensure that each of the following children’s rights or needs is satisfed
through a combination of systemic safeguards, advocacy duties, and basic advocacy issues.
a. systemic safeguards
• children need competent, independent, and zealous attorneys.the system of representation must
require the appointment of competent, independent, zealous attorneys for every child at every
stage of the proceedings. The same attorney should represent the child for as long as the child is
subject to the court’s jurisdiction.
• children need attorneys with adequate time and resources.the system of representation must
include reasonable caseload limits and at the same time provide adequate compensation for
attorneys representing children.
• children need attorneys who understand their role and duties.the system of representation of
children must be well defned by statute, bar standards, administrative guidelines, supreme court
directive or other documents such that every attorney appointed for a child can understand his/
her precise role and duties, and such that an attorney can be held accountable for performance of
those duties.
• children need an opportunity to present their positions to the court through counsel.the system
of representation must provide the child with an opportunity for his/her needs and wishes to be
expressed to the court.
• children need confdential communication with their attorneys.the attorney has a duty to explain
the extent of confdentiality in developmentally appropriate language.
• children need to be involved as litigants in the entire litigation process, including any post
disposition, termination of parental rights, and adoption proceedings. The system of representation
must recognize the child as a party to the litigation and must include the child in all phases of the
litigation, including the opportunity to participate in arguments and jury selection where applicable,
offer exhibits, call witnesses, examine and cross examine witnesses and engage in motions and
discovery processes. The child must also be given notice of all proceedings and copies of all
pleadings.
• children need judicial review of adverse decisions.the system of representation must provide an
opportunity to appeal an adverse ruling.
• children need to be able to hold their attorneys accountable.the system of representation must
provide recourse for ineffective assistance of counsel.
• children need an attorney with a fair opportunity to be effective in the court system.the system
of representation must include a court system that devotes adequate time and resources to cases.

41 http://www.naccchildlaw.org/resource/resmgr/docs/nacc_standards_and_recommend.pdf
continued opposite
EvERy ChILD’S RIGhT TO BE hEARD
29
chapter tWo • LeGaL anaLysis oF artiCLe 12

a CheCKList For representation oF ChiLdren in the usa continued
B.advocacy duties
• children need attorneys who fully understand their cases.the attorney must perform a full and
independent case investigation.
• children need meaningful communication with their attorneys.the attorney must observe the
child, and dependent upon the child’s age and capabilities, interview the child. The attorney must
engage in regular and meaningful communication with the child. Children need to participate in
making decisions that affect their cases. The attorney has a duty to involve the child client in the
process, whether under a client directed model or advocate directed model. The attorney has a
duty to explain his/her role to the child in developmentally appropriate language.
• children need loyal attorneys.the child’s attorney is prohibited from representation that would
constitute a conﬂict of interests.
• children need the full beneft of legal counsel.the attorney must provide competent, independent
and zealous representation for each client. The attorney must have adequate time and resources to
devote to the child’s case, and to understanding his/her role and duties, insuring confdentiality, and
full active participation in all stages of the child’s case.
C.advocacy issues
• children need permanence.the attorney must advocate for timely resolution and permanent
resolution (absent compelling reasons to the contrary) of the case.
• children need their immediate and basic needs met.the attorney must advocate for food, shelter,
clothing, and safety, including a safe temporary placement where necessary and for educational,
medical, mental health, and dental needs.
• children need family relationships.the attorney must advocate for continuation of appropriate
familial relationships and family preservation services where appropriate.
• children need to be protected from unnecessary harm that can result from legal proceedings.
The attorney must advocate for the utilization of court processes that minimize harm to the child,
and make certain that the child is properly prepared and emotionally supported where the child is
a witness.

artiCLe 12 means that Governments must:
• introduce legislative, procedural and administrative
measures to ensure that all children can be heard
• take account of the views of all children, however young
they are
• create the opportunities for children to be able to
express their views freely and without coercion or fear
• listen to children on all the issues that matter to them
• take their views seriously, bearing in mind their age
and maturity
• provide for children to be heard in all legal and
administrative proceedings
• allow children to be heard in proceedings either directly
or through a representative
• make sure that there are basic rules of fair proceedings
so that children are represented properly.
ChAPTER TWO
in summary
30
Article 12 And links with other Articles in the Uncrc
Chapter three
rachel palmer/save the children
Chapter three
Article 12 And links with other Articles in the Uncrc
generAl principles
Articles 12 and 2
Articles 12 and 3
Articles 12 and 6
civil rights And freedoms
Articles 12 and 13
Articles 12 and 14
Articles 12 and 15
Articles 12 and 16
Articles 12 and 17
evolving cApAcity And the exercise of rights
Articles 12 and 5
31
Article 12 needs to be understood both
as a fundamental right and also as a
general principle which must be taken into
account in the realisation of all other rights.
In other words, when considering how
to implement the right to education, to
the best possible health, or to alternative
care, whether in relation to a decision
concerning an individual child or to a policy
affecting all children, the views of children
must be taken into account. This broad
understanding of children’s right to be heard
is reﬂected in ‘A World Fit for Children’ in
which governments committed themselves
“to develop and implement programmes to
promote meaningful participation by children,
including adolescents, in decision-making
processes, including in families and schools
and at the local and national levels”.42
The UNCRC cannot be fully realised if
the child is not respected as a subject
with her or his own views on the rights
enshrined in the respective articles and
their implementation. The right of children
to express views is a means through which
they can realise other rights. For example,
by creating a mechanism through which
children can complain if they are being
sexually abused, they are able to trigger
action to protect themselves from
that abuse.
Moreover, there are some rights in the
UNCRC that have particular signifcance
in relation to Article 12. Article 12, as a
general principle itself, is linked to the
other general principles of the Convention:
• Article 2 – the right to non-discrimination
• Article 3 – primary consideration of the
best interests of the child
• Article 6 – the right to life, survival and
development.
It is also closely linked to the articles related
to civil rights and freedoms, in particular:
• Article 13 – the right to freedom of
expression
• Article 14 – the right to freedom of
thought, conscience and religion
• Article 15 – the right to freedom of
association
• Article 16 – the right to privacy
• Article 17 – the right to information.
Finally, it needs to be understood in relation
to Article 5, which addresses parental
guidance and the evolving capacities of
the child.
GeneraL prinCipLes
The Committee on the Rights of the Child
has determined that Articles, 2, 3, 6 and 12
of the UNCRC must be understood not
only as rights of children but also as general
principles to be applied in the realisation
of all other rights. Accordingly, Article 12
must be considered in the development
of any legislation, policies or programmes
undertaken to implement the other three
general principles.
articles 12 and 2
“It is diffcult for children, particularly girl
children, who are exploited mentally and
physically, to speak out and develop. They
lack self-esteem and hate themselves.”
Children from an urban community in Delhi43
The right to non-discrimination is an
inherent right guaranteed by all human
rights instruments, including the UNCRC.
Article 2 of the Convention provides
that every child has the right not to be
discriminated against in the exercise of his
or her rights, including those provided under
Article 12, on grounds of race, colour, sex,
ChAPTER ThREE
artiCLe 12 and LinKs with
other artiCLes in the unCrC
42 ‘A World Fit for Children’, adopted by the UN General
Assembly Special Session on Children, 2002, para. 32, subpara. 1
43 P Ray, ‘Children in the most diffcult circumstances’ in
B Percy-Smith and N Thomas (eds) A Handbook of Children
and Young People’s Participation. Perspectives from theory and
practice, Routledge, London, 2009
32
language, religion, political or other opinion,
ethnic or social origin, property, disability,
birth or other status. The Committee
stresses that appropriate measures must be
taken to address discrimination of vulnerable
or marginalised groups of children such as
girls, those affected by poverty or armed
conﬂict, very young children, children
without parental care, including children in
institutions, children with disabilities, children
living with HIV and AIDS, refugee and
displaced children, stateless children, street
and working children, children in conﬂict
with the law and children belonging to
indigenous and minority groups, to ensure
that they are encouraged and enabled to
participate in decision-making on an equal
basis with all other children.
In practice, it remains the case that
customary attitudes and practices in most
societies continue to undermine and place
severe limitations on the enjoyment of
this right. Discrimination against certain
groups of children remains widespread.
Governments are required, therefore, to
take active measures to raise awareness
and educate society about the negative
impact of such attitudes and practices
and to encourage attitudinal changes in
order to achieve full implementation of the
rights of every child under the UNCRC. In
particular, special attention must be paid
to the right of the girl child to be heard.
Gender stereotypes and patriarchal values
can serve to silence girls. Within families, in
schools as well as in the wider society, they
are not afforded the opportunity to express
their views; and even where they are, those
views are given less weight than would be
afforded to boys’ views. Support needs to
be provided to overcome these barriers and
bring an end to discrimination against girls in
the realisation of the right to be heard.
It is also important that governments take
account of the obligation in Article 7 of the
UN Convention on the Rights of Persons
with Disabilities to ensure that children with
disabilities are provided with the necessary
assistance and equipment to enable them
to freely express their views, and that those
views are given due weight on an equal
basis with other children. Article 21 of the
Convention on the Rights of Persons with
Disabilities, on freedom of expression and
opinion, and access to information, provides
details of the measures that States should
introduce to enable people, including
children, to exercise that right. This might
include production of materials in special
media, interpreters, such as signers for deaf
children, and special training for parents,
teachers and other adults.
articles 12 and 3
Article 3 states that in all actions concerning
children, whether undertaken by a public
or a private welfare institution, courts,
administrative authorities or legislative
bodies, the best interests of the child are a
primary consideration. Other articles (for
example, Article 9, parental separation;
Article 18, parental responsibility for
children; Article 20, alternative care; Article
21, adoption; Article 37, deprivation of
liberty; and Article 40, parental presence
in judicial hearings) lend further emphasis
as to how and where the principle must
be applied. This principle establishes an
obligation on governments to introduce
laws, policies and practice to ensure that all
actions affecting children take account of
the best interests of children. This obligation
extends to the action of private and public
institutions, and public authorities as well
as legislative bodies. The extension of the
obligation to “legislative bodies” clearly
indicates that every law, regulation or rule
that affects children must be guided by the
“best interests” criterion.
Consideration of the child’s views, in
accordance with Article 12, must be an
integral part of determining the child’s
best interests. In any decision made by
adults as to the best interests of the child,
due weight must be given to the child’s
expressed wishes in accordance with his or
her age and maturity. Adults need to hear
directly from any child capable of forming
a view, in order to make decisions as to
EvERy ChILD’S RIGhT TO BE hEARD
33
chapter three • artiCLe 12 and LinKs with other artiCLes in the unCrC
his or her best interests. Steps to ensure
that this happens are mandatory under
the UNCRC. However, once the child has
been heard, and his or her views given
due consideration, Article 3 may lead to a
fnal decision that differs from the child’s
expressed wishes. When this happens, the
child must be informed of this decision,
explaining how his or her views were
considered, and why the decision was made
as it was.
Article 3 applies equally to actions affecting
individual children, and children as a group.
For example, any decision concerning where
a child will live following parental separation
must be based on what would be in the
best interests of the child and not on any
principle of fairness or justice for the parent.
In making the judgement, the child’s views
must be heard. Equally, if the best interests
of a large group of children are at stake, for
example, when planning and implementing
a transport system, the best interests of the
child in relation to access, cost and safety
must be considered, and this obligation
must be met by ensuring that children’s own
views are heard.
The two articles, and the general principles
they establish, are complementary: Article 3
establishes the objective of achieving the
best interests of the child, while Article 12
is one of the means through which the
determination is reached. Article 3 cannot
be implemented without regard to
Article 12. As noted in General Comment
No. 3, on ‘HIV/AIDS and the Rights of the
Child’, “Interventions are found to beneft
children most when they are actively involved
in assessing needs, devising solutions, shaping
strategies and carrying them out, rather than
being seen as objects for whom decisions
are made.” 45
The best interests principle does not
override other rights in the UNCRC and
so should not be used to ‘trump’ the child’s
right to express views; for example, to
exclude a child from court hearings where

nZeve sChooL For the deaF: ChiLdren GuidinG and
shapinGtheir own LearninG in ZimBaBwe44
Children with disabilities often miss out on sexual and reproductive health education (SRhE). A
school in Zimbabwe for hearing-impaired children adopted a programme to overcome this exclusion
through the participation of children themselves. The children had found that an existing SRhE
manual was not very user friendly for hearing-impaired children and it did not address some of their
specifc vulnerabilities. Accordingly, the school worked in collaboration with the children to adapt the
manual specifcally for their use. In this way, children have shaped their own education.
The approach taken by the school was to gather children’s opinions on existing SRhE materials, to
see which aspects of this information were confusing or could be improved. In particular, children
explained that certain words were diffcult to express in sign language and that illustrations helped
them grasp content more quickly. They also suggested that hearing-impaired characters be used
in the examples, role plays and scenarios. After making these adaptations, the school took the
revised materials back to children for a second round of feedback. This step was important because
the children could see that their suggestions had been incorporated, which gave them a sense
of ownership over the document and encouraged them to come up with even more ideas and
recommendations. Meanwhile, the process itself provided children with the opportunity to review
SRhE topics a number of times, helping them to absorb and retain the information. Teachers, too, had
an opportunity to provide feedback on the manual.

44 C W Fanelli and M Mushunje, Child Participation in Education
Initiatives, Catholic Relief Services Zimbabwe, 2007
45 General Comment No. 3, ‘hIv/AIDS and the Rights of the Child’,
CRC/GC/2003/3, 2003
34
testifying is considered to be potentially
harmful. Rather, in accordance with the
child’s age and maturity, efforts should be
made to provide the child with appropriate
information and support to make informed
choices regarding his or her participation,
and to explore ways of enabling the child
to express his or her views in ways that
will avoid such harm. Legal standards
and practices are needed that provide a
conducive and protective environment,
enabling children to participate in an
atmosphere of mutual respect, trust and
understanding. (See also Chapter 5.)
articles 12 and 6
Article 6 of the UNCRC acknowledges
that every child has an inherent right to
life and requires that governments
create the necessary environments
and opportunities to ensure, to the
maximum extent possible, the survival and
development of every child. The expression
of views and the experience of being
taken seriously is an important means
of strengthening children’s development.
Participation leads to greater levels of
competence, which in turn enhances the
quality of participation.46 Participation is
not only a means by which children can
effect change but also an opportunity
for developing a sense of autonomy,
independence, heightened social
competence and resilience.47
However, effective participation is not
guaranteed. Like adults, children need
opportunities to build competence and
confdence through direct experience. Such
skills are neither innate nor an inevitable
consequence of social maturation. They
develop in accordance with experience,
with adults’ assumptions of competence
and the levels of responsibility afforded to
the child. The development of competence
takes place throughout life. Yet, in too many
situations, in too many countries, adults fail
to play a facilitating role in helping children
make their own decisions, or extending
children’s competence. Rather, they impose
their solutions rather than helping children
come to their own conclusions.48
Education should play an important role in
optimising children’s development and must
do so through the creation of opportunities
for children to participate and exercise
increasing levels of decision-making and
responsibility. However, in practice, schools
too often deny, rather than facilitate,
opportunities for collaborative participation
and the exercise of responsibility.49
General Comment No. 1 on ‘The Aims of
Education’ makes it clear that “education
must be provided in a way that respects
the inherent dignity of the child and enables
the child to express his or her views freely
in accordance with article 12 (1) and to
participate in school life”. It goes on to stress
that “the participation of children in school
life, the creation of school communities and
student councils, peer education and peer
counselling, and the involvement of children
in school disciplinary proceedings should be
promoted as part of the process of learning
and experiencing the realization of rights”.50 In
other words, schools should be playing a key
role in building children’s competence, and
governments need to take action to build
more participatory and democratic school
environments (see page 100) in order
to fulfl their obligations, not only under
Article 12, but also under Article 6.
46 R Rajani, Discussion paper for partners on Promoting Strategic
Adolescent Participation, UNICEF, Newyork, 2000
47 J M Richman and L G Bowen, ‘School failure: an ecological
interactional-developmental perspective’ in M Fraser (ed.) Risk
and Resilience in childhood: an ecological perspective, NASW Press,
Washington, DC, 1997, pp. 95–116
48 C hallett, C Murray and S Punch, ‘young people and welfare:
negotiating pathways’ in C hallett and A Prout (eds) Hearing the
voices of children: Social policy for a new century, RoutledgeFalmer,
London, 2003
49 T hammarberg, A school for children with rights, UNICEF
International Child Development Centre, Florence, 1997
50 General Comment No. 1, ‘The Aims of Education’, CRC/
GC/2001/1
EvERy ChILD’S RIGhT TO BE hEARD
35
chapter three • artiCLe 12 and LinKs with other artiCLes in the unCrC
CiviL riGhts and Freedoms
The realisation of Article 12 is directly
linked with other civil rights and freedoms
in the UNCRC. These rights have to be
understood and implemented holistically.
Together, they assert the status of the child
as a subject of rights, entitled to exercise
these rights on his or her own behalf, in
accordance with evolving capacities.
articles 12 and 13
The right to freedom of expression
embodied in Article 13 is often confused
with Article 12. However, while these
two articles are strongly linked, they do
elaborate different rights. Freedom of
expression relates to the right to hold and
express opinions, and to seek and receive
information through any media. It asserts
the right of the child not to be restricted
by the State in the opinions she or he holds
or expresses. Therefore, the obligation it
imposes on the State is to refrain from
interfering in the expression of those
views, or in access to information, while
protecting the right of access to means of
communication and public dialogue.
By contrast, Article 12 relates to the
expression of views specifcally about
matters that affect the child, and the right
to be involved in decisions and actions
that have an impact on his or her life. This
explains why Article 12 does not allow the
imposition of the restrictions on freedom
of expression set out in Article 13(2).
Article 12 imposes an obligation on the
State to introduce active measures to
enable the child to be heard and to take
his or her views seriously. Freedom of
expression in Article 13 requires no such
engagement or response. However, creating
an environment of respect for children
to express their views, consistent with
Article 12, also contributes towards building
children’s capacities to exercise their right
to freedom of expression.
articles 12 and 14
Article 14 recognises the right of children to
freedom of thought, conscience and religion.
It also respects the right and responsibility of
parents or, when applicable, legal guardians,
to provide direction to the child in the
exercise of this right, in a manner consistent
with the child’s evolving capacities. Taken
together with Article 5, it implies that once
children are competent to make a decision
for themselves, they should be granted
the freedom to adopt or reject whatever
religion they choose. However, any direction
provided by parents must be in conformity
with the whole of the UNCRC, and
therefore take account of Article 12, and
not involve physical or emotional coercion.
articles 12 and 15
Article 15, the right to freedom of
association and peaceful assembly, is an
important vehicle for promoting the right
of children to express views and pursue
the implementation of their rights. Children
need to be able to meet with others,
form their own associations and groups
in order to develop and articulate their
views and create spaces where these
can be communicated to others. Such
opportunities for organised participation
can be of particular value for children
from the most marginalised communities.
Governments should support and
encourage children’s organisations and
child-led initiatives, and consider the
introduction of legislation or regulations
that enable and support children to
form and register their own associations.
However, children should not be required
to join membership groups, particularly
those that are linked directly or indirectly
with military structures or with a specifc
political regime.
36
articles 12 and 16
Children are entitled to respect for
privacy and confdentiality, consistent
with Article 16. Compliance with this
obligation is essential if children are to be
able to express their views safely, without
fear of retribution.
articles 12 and 17
Fulflment of the child’s right to information,
consistent with Article 17, is a prerequisite
for the realisation of the right to express
views. Children need access to information
in formats appropriate to their age and
abilities, on all issues of concern to them.
This applies to information, for example,
relating to their rights, any proceedings
affecting them, national legislation,
regulations and policies, local services, and
appeals and complaints procedures. In
accordance with both Articles 17 and 42
(the obligation to make the provisions of
the UNCRC widely known), governments
should include children’s rights in the
school curricula. Access to the media is also
an important means both of promoting
awareness of the right of children to express
their views, and of providing opportunities
for that expression.51 For example, one of
the main Norwegian newspapers devotes
one page every day to comments from
children, and very often there is a reference
on the front page to the most interesting
comment. The media should be encouraged
to include children in the development of
programmes and articles, and to create
opportunities for children to plan and lead
media initiatives covering the topic of their
rights. Governments should take action to
ensure that the media are accessible and
sensitive to children.52
There is growing concern globally about the
exploitation and abuse of children through
social networking sites, as well as unwanted
and inappropriate exposure to extreme
forms of online pornography.53 A balance
needs to be found between the need to
promote opportunities for access to the
Internet while also protecting children from
harm. In the context of the new social
media, children’s own knowledge of how
they use the Internet, what risks they take
and how they seek to protect themselves, is
a vital resource in promoting greater safety.
However, in reality, it will never be possible
to build a totally safe online environment.
Children therefore need to be involved
in discussions about how to protect
themselves from harmful information and
exposure to risk, and empowered to take
safe and informed decisions about their
online behaviour.
evoLvinG CapaCities and
the exerCise oF riGhts
articles 12 and 5
Articles 12 and 5 are closely linked. While
Article 12 addresses the right to be
heard, Article 5 implies that competent
children should be able to exercise rights
for themselves. It states that governments
must respect the responsibilities, rights
and duties of parents, legal guardians,
or members of the extended family or
community as provided for by local custom,
to give appropriate direction and guidance
to the child in her or his exercise of the
rights recognised in the UNCRC. In other
words, parents or other legal guardians
are vested with rights and responsibilities
in view of children’s lack of capacity and
need for protection. However, Article 5
51 Day of General Discussion on the Child and the Media, 1996,
www.unhchr.ch/html/menu2/6/crc/doc/days/media.pdf
52 Ibid.
53 G Lansdown, Protection of children from violence, sexual abuse
and exploitation in the online/ofﬂine merged environment, UNICEF
Innocenti Research Centre, Florence, 2011
EvERy ChILD’S RIGhT TO BE hEARD
37
chapter three • artiCLe 12 and LinKs with other artiCLes in the unCrC
also states that any direction and guidance
provided must take account of the evolving
capacities of the child. The more the child
himself or herself knows, has experienced
and understands, the more the parent, legal
guardian or other persons legally responsible
for the child must allow the child to exercise
those rights for himself or herself. This
means that as children acquire capacities,
so they are entitled to an increasing level of
responsibility for the regulation of matters
affecting them.54 For example, every child,
from birth, has the right to the best possible
health, and access to health services. While
the child is very young, parents have the
right and responsibility to give consent
to medical treatment and services on
behalf of the child. However, as the child
acquires greater levels of understanding
and competence, the right to give consent
should transfer from the parent to the child.
Article 5 makes no mention of age as a
factor in determining levels of capacity,
thereby recognising that it is the
demonstration of the requisite skills,
knowledge and understanding, rather than
simply reaching a given age, that should
inﬂuence the exercise of rights. And of
course, the experience of being enabled
to express views and have them taken
seriously can play a key role in building
children’s capacity to demonstrate that
competence. However, in practice, it will
be necessary to introduce some age limits;
it is not possible to assess every individual
child in relation to capacity in all aspects of
legislation. There is a need for gradual
benchmarks of increasing emancipation of
children (for example, driving a car or access
to certain flms) and also for age limits to
ensure protection from exploitation (for
example, in relation to employment or
marriage).55 Governments are encouraged,
however, to try to take account of Article 5
when introducing legislation to establish
age limits relating to children’s exercise of
their rights.
54 General Comment No. 5, ‘General Measures of Implementation
for the Convention on the Rights of the Child’, 2003
55 See G Lansdown, The Evolving Capacities of the Child, UNICEF
Innocenti Research Centre, Florence, 2005, for a more detailed
discussion of these issues.
38

new ZeaLand – an exampLe oF LeGisLation respeCtinG
ChiLdren’s evoLvinG CapaCities
does your policy need an age limit?
The Ministry foryouth Affairs in New Zealand issued guidelines for government departments and
public bodies when determining age limits in law and policy. The aim is to make certain that youth
ages are used:
• effectively and consistently in the broader policy context
• without discriminating negatively or unjustifably.
The guidelines suggest the following series of steps when formulating any age-related policy:
step 1
Is a youth age really necessary?
• What purpose would it serve – ie, protection, empowerment, determination of entitlements or
defnition of responsibilities?
• have potential alternatives been given careful consideration?
step 2
Choose the appropriate age
• What is the desired purpose of establishing the age limit?
• Will it be in the child’s best interests and, if so, how?
• Is the age limit consistent with other laws?
• how will it affect children’s ability to participate in decisions that affect them and their broader
participation in society?
• Is the age limit consistent with the Un convention on the rights of the child?
step 3
Can you justify the youth age?
• Does the age limit discriminate against young people? It is not acceptable to treat young people
differently just because of their age.
• Does the age limit impede access to benefts or entitlements for young people?
• Will the age limit affect some groups of young people more than others and thereby indirectly
discriminate?
step 4
Seek young people’s contributions
Consulting young people in the decision-making process will mean:
• better understanding of the best interests of young people
• avoiding assumptions that ‘adults know best’
• increased likelihood of respect for the law by young people.
step 5
Be clear about why you have chosen a youth age

EvERy ChILD’S RIGhT TO BE hEARD
39
when impLementinG artiCLe 12, Governments
need to reCoGnise the FoLLowinG:
• It is a fundamental right, and also a general principle.
• It must be respected in the realisation of all other rights.
• No child must be discriminated against – every child has
an equal right to be heard.
• Positive discrimination may be needed to ensure
participation of some children; for example, children with
disabilities, children from indigenous communities.
• When deciding children’s best interests, you need to listen
to children’s point of view, although this does not mean
that children’s wishes must or can always be complied with.
• Participation is a way of enhancing children’s optimum
development.
• Participation is linked with other civil rights – to freedom
of expression, religion, conscience, and association, as well
as rights to information and privacy.
• The way in which children can participate will change as
they grow older.
• Children should be enabled to take increasing levels
of responsibility for the exercise of their rights as their
capacities evolve.
ChAPTER ThREE
in summary
overarching measures for implementing article 12
Chapter four
Kullwadee Sumnalop/Save the Children
Chapter four
overaching measures for implementing article 12
1. Review and withdraw restrictive declarations and reservations to Article 12
2. Introduce legislation
3. Establish independent human rights institutions
4. Provide training on Article 12 for all relevant professionals
5. Ensure appropriate conditions for enabling children to express views
6. Combat negative attitudes
41
It will be necessary to introduce a range
of general measures across government in
order to create an environment in which
Article 12 can be realised for all children.
In most countries, governments will need
to undertake proactive measures to build
a culture of respect, backed up by legal
entitlements, in order to shift prevailing
attitudes and practices that silence and
marginalise children, and deny them any
opportunity to be heard or taken seriously.
1 review and withdraw restrictive
declarations and reservations to
article 12
The Committee on the Rights of the Child
has consistently expressed concern about
declarations and reservations that appear
to challenge full recognition of the child as a
subject of rights, and emphasises that States
should commit themselves to reviewing
and withdrawing any such limitations on
the right of the child with regard to Article
12.56 In its Day of General Discussion on
the Right of the Child to be Heard it “urged
States Parties that have made reservations on
the application of articles 12, 13, 14, 15 and
17 of the CRC to consider their withdrawal”.57
2 introduce legislation
The right to be heard must be established
in legislation. It cannot be allowed to rely on
well-meaning individuals or institutions. It is
an entitlement, not merely a matter of good
practice. Governments will need to review
or amend their legislation to ensure that it
introduces the necessary mechanisms to
provide children with the right to be heard,
access to appropriate information, adequate
support where necessary, feedback on the
weight given to their views and procedures
for complaints, remedies and redress.
Examples are provided throughout this
resource book on legislative measures
that governments around the world have
introduced to give effect to this right:
• in all civil and criminal proceedings in
which a child is involved, including the right
to bring proceedings
• in matters affecting children as individuals
such as in healthcare, family proceedings,
adoption, education
• as a group or constituency, such as the
right to establish school councils, or
children’s parliaments, or to be consulted
in government policies at national and
local levels.
3 establish independent human rights
institutions
Independent human rights institutions or
children’s commissioners or ombudsmen
should be established with a broad children’s
rights mandate.58 Such offces can play a vital
role in helping populations and politicians
understand the reality of children’s lives,
making children more visible, providing a
channel for getting children’s own views
across to government and to the public,
and promoting respect for children’s views
throughout society. They need to work
directly with children to ensure that their
work is directly informed by the concerns
and priorities of children themselves. In
General Comment No. 2 on National
ChAPTER FOUR
overarChinG measures For impLementinG artiCLe 12
Note: Children are not a homogeneous group. Girls and boys, children of different ages, those who
do not speak the majority language, children with disabilities, children living with hIv andAIDS,
children living in poverty – all have an equal right to express their views and have them taken
seriously. In all contexts, efforts must be made to accommodate these differences to ensure that
no child is discriminated against in the exercise of this right.
56 R hodgkin and P Newell, Implementation Handbook on the UN
Convention on the Rights of the Child, UNICEF, Newyork, 2007
57 Committee on the Rights of the Child, Report on the 43rd
Session, September 2006, ‘The Right of the Child to be heard’
58 National Human Rights Institutions, Centre for human Rights
Professional Training Series No. 4, Centre for human Rights,
Geneva, 1995
42
Human Rights Institutions, the Committee
on the Rights of the Child highlights the
importance of involving children directly in
the work of such institutions.59
The UN human rights system has developed
principles and guidelines for national human
rights institutions, known as the Paris
Principles, which set out the functions which
need to be included in their mandate.60
Beyond these core principles, additional
specifc aims have been developed for
commissioners or ombudsmen for children
which have implications for Article 12,
including:61
• to provide a channel for children’s views
• to encourage the government and the
public to give proper respect to children’s
views
• to promote structures that will enable
children to exercise rights for themselves
• to collect and publish data on the
recognition and enjoyment of children’s
human rights and/or encourage the
government to collect and publish
adequate data
• to promote awareness of the human
rights of children among children
themselves and among adults
• to conduct investigations and undertake
or encourage research
• to review children’s access to, and the
effectiveness of, all forms of advocacy
and complaints systems, for example in
detention, other institutions and schools
and in relation to violence within the
family, and including a review of children’s
access to the courts
• to respond to individual problems or
complaints from children or those
representing children, and where
appropriate to initiate or support legal
action on behalf of children.
Many countries across the world now have
such institutions. Governments which have
not yet established the post of ombudsman
or commissioner for children’s rights are
encouraged to do so and to ensure that it
complies with the Paris Principles in respect
of its competence, breadth of mandate,
and independence necessary to promote
and protect children’s rights effectively.
Information and guidance is available on
the website of the European Network of
Ombudspersons for Children (ENOC).
Although focused on Europe, much of the
material has relevance internationally.62

invoLvinG ChiLdren in the worK oFthe Commissioner
The Scottish Commissioner for Children andyoung People (SCCyP) has developed a strategy for
involving children and young people.63 To ensure that their involvement is meaningful and practical,
they are divided into the following age groups:
• reference Group, 14–21 years to support and advise SccYp on matters of organisational
development
• consultation Groups, 5–13 years, to advise on policy, recruitment and communications, and on
how to involve younger children
• early Years events, 0–4 years, to gather the views of very young children through play, stories and
consultations with play workers, nursery nurses and parents.
In line with Article 12 (1) of the UNCRC, children’s level of inﬂuence is given due weight in
accordance with their age and maturity.

59 General Comment No. 2, CRC/GC/2002/2, 2002, paras 16
and 17
60 ‘Principles relating to the Status of National Institutions’: the
Paris Principles, adopted by the UN General Assembly in
December 1993, 48/134
61 European Network of Ombudspersons for Children,
Information and Training Pack, http://www.ombudsnet.org/docs/
informationandtrainingpack.pdf
62 www.ombudsnet.org
63 www.sccyp.org.uk
EvERy ChILD’S RIGhT TO BE hEARD
43
chapter foUr • overarChinG measures For impLementinG artiCLe 12
4 provide training on article 12 for all
relevant professionals
Governments need to provide sustainable
and continuing pre- and in-service training
for all professionals working with and
for children on the UNCRC, including
Article 12, and how to implement it. Such
training needs be provided for lawyers,
judges, police, social workers, community
workers, psychologists, caregivers, residential
and prison offcers, teachers at all levels of
the educational system, medical doctors,
nurses and other health professionals,
civil servants and public offcials, asylum
offcers and traditional leaders. It is
necessary to integrate such training into
professionals’ core curricula. This will mean
working with:
• professional bodies, such as paediatric
societies, to support them in adapting
existing curricula
• civil society organisations that currently
provide capacity-building programmes
for professionals to incorporate children’s
rights into their curricula and to
collaborate with governments in creating
effective children’s rights curricula within
mainstream training
• universities and other academic and
training institutions to encourage
the incorporation of children’s rights
education and to build the capacity of
teaching staff to provide training on
children’s rights.
In terms of content, children’s rights
education from the perspective of
Article 12 needs to include:65
• an overall introduction to the
un Convention on the rights of
the Child, the rights it embodies and
its signifcance in recognising children
as active subjects of rights, entitled to
participate in decisions that affect them in
accordance with their age and maturity
• analysis of the implications of the UNCRC,
and of Article 12 for the practice of the
individual professional; for example,
learning to listen to and respect children’s
views, their evolving capacities, and their
right to confdentiality, to freedom of
expression and conscience, to information
and to their personal and physical integrity.
Training also needs to address how
to approach and reconcile perceived
tensions between parental or adult and
children’s rights

ListeninGto ChiLdren aCross europe64
A recent survey of how children’s rights ombudsmen and commissioners in Europe listen to children
found that most of the organisations sought to discover children’s opinions, some on a nationwide
basis. For example, France and Scotland have organised national consultations with 2,500 and 16,000
children respectively and then advocated on the basis of the children’s ideas. Others said they tried,
wherever possible, to hear from children affected by particular issues; for example, Finland has sought
the views of Sami and Roma children of their experiences, and Ireland has published the life stories
of asylum-seeking children. A number hold children’s conferences and workshops or carry out online
surveys. Denmark said that its institution has established a representative panel of approximately
2,000 12-year-old children who complete online questionnaires three or four times a year, the results
of which are used for campaigning.

64 R hodgkin and P Newell, The role and mandate of children’s
ombudspersons in Europe: Safeguarding and promoting children’s
rights and ensuring children’s views are taken seriously, European
Network of Ombudspersons for Children, Strasbourg, 2010
65 See www.cred-pro.org for more information on strategies
for developing children’s rights education programmes for
professionals.
44
• analysis of the implications of the UNCRC
for the way services for children are
developed, managed and resourced,
whether these relate to, for example,
education, healthcare, child protection,
or juvenile justice. Training needs to
highlight the importance of engaging with
children to ensure that their expertise,
experience and concerns are reﬂected in
the development of services. For example,
is the service equally accessible for all
children, what changes are needed to
remove barriers that serve to discriminate
against girls, children with disabilities, poor
children, children in rural communities
and others? Is the service designed to
promote the best interests of children?
How can it be improved to ensure that it
promotes the rights of children?
• An introduction to the responsibilities
of professionals to work as
advocates with and for children in
the realisation of their rights. Doctors,
teachers and other professionals bear
witness to the impact of government
policy, or lack of it, on the rights and
wellbeing of children. They need to be
supported to listen to children, take their
experiences seriously and engage in active
advocacy for change, either by supporting
children to speak for themselves or by
collaborating with children to focus public
attention and that of the policy-makers on
their concerns.
5 ensure appropriate conditions for
enabling children to express views
Article 12 is a right not a privilege. It
is therefore necessary to create an
environment in which children can express
views in all areas of their lives and to
ensure that this entitlement is embedded
within legislation and regulations. Domestic
law needs to incorporate provisions that
uphold the right to participation in the
informal arena of family life, in children’s
school and community life, in healthcare, in
institutions, and in childcare settings, as well
as in all formal judicial and administrative
proceedings. It will be necessary to review
existing laws, regulations and administrative
instructions to ensure that they fully reﬂect
the obligations in Article 12. For example,
South Africa’s Children’s Act introduces
a general principle that “Every child that
is of such an age, maturity and stage of
development as to be able to participate in
any matter concerning that child has the right
to participate in an appropriate way and
views expressed by the child must be given
due consideration.” 66 (Further details of what
legislation is required will be dealt with in
the relevant section of the resource guide.)
Efforts should be made to review and
evaluate the effectiveness of those
provisions on a regular basis. This might be
done by research with children to fnd out:
• How many children know about the right
to express their views?
• What percentage of children have
successfully used those provisions?
• What was the impact of expressing their
views?
• What percentage of children would have
liked to express views but were unaware
of their right to do so?
• How should the provisions be better
promoted to improve children’s
awareness of them?
• How should the procedures for
expressing views be improved to make
them more accessible and effective?
• What structures and mechanisms are in
place for them to express their views?
• How safe are children when they express
their views openly?
Efforts need to be made to disaggregate
any such data, in particular according to age
and disability.
66 Section 10, Children’s Act 2005, South Africa
EvERy ChILD’S RIGhT TO BE hEARD
45
chapter foUr • overarChinG measures For impLementinG artiCLe 12

stiLL a LonG way to Go67
Recent research on the application of Article 12 in judicial proceedings indicates that it is still far
from the norm for children to be heard, even in Europe where most countries do have legislation
affrming the right of children to express their views in legal proceedings:
• In Denmark in 2003, only about 20% of children were heard in divorce contact cases.a study
of complex divorce cases in 2004 found that only about one-quarter of children were given the
opportunity to express their views. Just 52% of 7- to 11-year-olds were offered an interview as
part of case processing: the main reasons given for this were social workers’ heavy caseload and,
remarkably, their “lack of confdence” in interviewing children.
• A survey in Iceland in 1998 found that less than one-third of children were asked to give their views
to child welfare committees. A representative for the child was appointed in just 0.01% of cases.
• research in Sweden between 1999 and 2001 showed that, although children’s views were elicited
much more than in the past, documentation of their views occurred in only about half the cases
and there was little record of children’s views affecting the outcome of decisions.

67 D O’Donnell, The Right of Children to be Heard: Children’s right to
have their views taken into account and to participate in legal and
administrative proceedings, UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre,
Florence, 2009

suGGested standards/indiCators For CreatinG
an environment For ChiLdren’s partiCipation
1 measuring legal entitlements to participate
• child-friendly court procedures are introduced for child victims and witnesses, eg:
– courts are obliged to consider children’s views when deciding matters affecting them
– mechanisms for recording and using children’s statements are introduced in child protection
proceedings
– legal information and education is provided for children.
• representation for children is provided through legal aid mechanisms.
• respect is given to children’s evolving capacities, eg:
– minimum ages of consent to treatment have been introduced
– children are entitled to confdential medical counselling
– children have freedom of thought, conscience and religion, in accordance with their evolving
capacities.
• children are entitled to be heard at all stages of child protection procedures.
• children are entitled to be heard in civil judicial proceedings affecting them, including divorce,
separation, and adoption.
• children in public care are entitled to be involved in decision-making processes affecting their lives.
• all schools are required to establish democratic school councils.
• family law includes provisions on parental obligations including the obligation to involve children in
decisions affecting them.
2 measuring the right of access to information
• education is compulsory and free for all children.
• Information is available from a wide range of sources.
• children have access to independent information from various sources: radio, television, libraries,
books, press, Internet, helplines.

continued overleaf
46
6 Combat negative attitudes
“The police shouldn’t stop and harass us…
they should learn to talk to us properly. If
we want to ask them for information then
we should have the right to do so….We are
children and even we have a lot of rights.”
Boy rag-picker, 12 years old.68
Implementation of Article 12 will require a
change in the culture and attitudes towards
children in most societies. Children tend to
be invisible in decisions and policy-making,
even where those decisions and polices
directly affect them. It is assumed that
adults know best and can make informed

suGGested standards/indiCators For CreatinG
an environment For ChiLdren’s partiCipation continued
• children have the opportunity to use broadcast media to communicate their own views.
• Information is readily available in child-friendly and accessible formats that are appropriate for
children of different ages and disabilities.
• human rights education is included in the school curriculum.
• human rights education is provided in outreach programmes for children out of school.
• children have knowledge about their rights, and how to realise them.
3 measuring awareness-raising on children’s participation rights
• children’s rights training, including a focus on participation, is introduced at pre- and in-service
levels for all professionals working with and for children, including teachers, doctors, nurses,
lawyers, judges, police, psychologists, social workers, prison staff, and staff working in institutions.
• programmes of parent education on child rights are developed and made widely available.
• policy-makers are sensitive to and aware of children’s right to participation.
4 measuring opportunities, mechanisms and structures to inﬂuence public decisions
• children are consulted on local and national government legislation, policies, services and resource
allocations.
• children provide feedback on the quality, accessibility and appropriateness of public services for
children.
• children are represented in local and national governance bodies.
• children have the right to establish their own organisations.
• Democratic child-led organisations are supported at national and local level.
• children have meaningful opportunities to control their own organisations.
• children’s inputs are given serious consideration in decision-making processes.
• Budget allocations take account of children’s perspectives.
5 measuring respect for children’s participation in their daily lives
• children are consulted within families when decisions affecting them are being made.
• Schools provide a child-friendly, participatory learning environment.
• children are involved in decision-making processes concerning their own healthcare, consistent
with their evolving capacities.
• children can access confdential healthcare services, including, for adolescents, reproductive
healthcare.
• confdential mechanisms (such as child helplines) are in place for children to complain and to seek
redress in cases of abuse, without fear of reprisals.
• children participate in local community actions or decision-making processes.
• children are involved in developing indicators for child-friendly cities and communities.
• child-friendly cities and communities are introduced.

68 C O’Kane, ‘Street and Working Children’s Participation in
Programming for their Rights: Conﬂicts Arising from Diverse
Perspectives and Directions for Convergence’, Children, Youth and
Environments 13(1), Spring 2003.
EvERy ChILD’S RIGhT TO BE hEARD
47
chapter foUr • overarChinG measures For impLementinG artiCLe 12
and wise decisions in the absence of input
from children themselves. Bringing about
change in these attitudes and practices
needs leadership from governments in
the way they talk about children, promote
respect for them and recognise them as
citizens within society. This positive cultural
environment can be engendered by:
• Challenging negative views about
children. Governments should avoid
using pejorative or negative stereotypes
about children. Too often, children,
particularly adolescents, are characterised
as problems, and defned as a whole
by the behaviours of a small minority.
Governments should seek to reinforce
positive images of children, in public
speeches, in press releases, in interviews.
This can be done by focusing on the
strengths, abilities and achievements of
children and young people, and on their
contributions to society. Furthermore,
governments should actively champion
respect for children in the face of hostile
media reporting and the activities of lobby
groups seeking to inﬂuence government
policy without reference to children, or
indeed, of those seeking to limit the rights
of children.
• engaging children as citizens.
Governments’ approach in policy-making
should openly endorse and reinforce
respect for children as citizens and active
members of society capable of and
entitled to civic engagement. In this way,
opportunities can be made for children
to be more visible, and through their
engagement begin to demonstrate their
capacity for participation.
• making the case for participation.
Governments can play a key role in
making the arguments for children’s
participation, highlighting the benefts
this can bring at all levels of society. They
should raise the matter in all public forums
and with different audiences in order to
convey a strong message that not only
do children have a right to participate
in all matters that affect them but that
their active engagement brings clear and
sustainable benefts.

Governments promotinG ChiLdren’s partiCipation
In uganda, the government, in partnership with UNICEF, has produced a guide to children’s
participation aimed at people working in relevant institutions and organisations, including schools,
healthcare providers, legal institutions, probation and welfare institutions, local councils, non
governmental organisations, community-based organisations, and the media. The guide provides
useful information and emphasises the responsibility of all these agencies for involving children and
young people in any issues that affect them. In so doing it sends a powerful message throughout
society as to the importance of listening to and engaging children as actors in their own lives.69
In the philippines, the government has developed a 25-year national framework for promoting
children’s participation. This was developed in collaboration with children themselves, and
includes indicators for monitoring the implementation of the right to participate, as well as the
recommendations of the children and young people involved.70

69 The National Child Participation Guide for Uganda, Creating an
Environment for Children to be Heard, Ministry of Gender, Labour
and Social Development, Uganda Child Rights NGO Network
and UNICEF-Uganda, 2008
70 Cited in the Philippines National Framework for Child
Participation, 2000–2025, Council for the Welfare of Children,
National Early Childhood Care and Development Coordinating
Council
48

ChanGinG aduLt attitudes, expandinGyounG peopLe’s
inFLuenCe in CoLomBia71
In 2006, Plan Colombia initiated a six-year project to create broader societal change through
developing young people’s life skills and enabling them to reduce violence and conﬂict in their
families and communities. It also encouraged adult caregivers to view adolescents as a solution to
widespread problems such as violence, rather than as a cause of the problem. Between 2006 and
2008, 3,500 adolescents, 120 teachers and 300 parents participated in orientation and training
sessions to increase their understanding on issues of gender, violence, social inequality and sexuality
as well as the development of young people’s potential.
Using creative forms of communication, the project provided adolescents with the opportunity to
express themselves in different settings and through different channels, such as through a young
people’s magazine called Caja Magica (‘Magic Box’). The project included designated days to celebrate
and strengthen the relationship between children and their parents, facilitating intergenerational
discussions on domestic conﬂicts and violence and helping the children and adults to work together
to develop solutions.
As a result of this work, young people were given the opportunity to contribute to the formulation
and implementation of public policy issues concerning them. Boys and girls participating in the
project took part in a policy-making programme called ‘Theyoung – Potential for Development’.
Three project participants have since taken part in a national working group formed to promote
implementation of the government’s youth policy. Another key success was the increased and
improved participation of adolescents in the development of communal development plans, which
form the basis of the country’s regional development plan.

71 Adapted from: Children as Active Citizens: Addressing discrimination against
children’s engagement in civil and political processes, Plan International, 2009
EvERy ChILD’S RIGhT TO BE hEARD
49
the GeneraL measures needed
to impLement artiCLe 12 are:
• introduction of or amendments to legislation to ensure
that the right of children to be heard is established as a
matter of entitlement in all relevant aspects of their lives
• the establishment of independent human rights institutions
to advocate for and to support children in getting their
voices heard
• training for all professionals who work with children so
that they are able to respect and protect children’s rights
in their day-to-day practice, in their institutions and in their
advocacy on behalf of children
• establishing standards or benchmarks against which to
measure the extent to which children’s participation is
being realised, and backing these up with research and
independent evaluations
• the promotion of a positive environment by use of language,
by active engagement with children themselves, and by
challenging traditional attitudes which assume either that
when children speak out it is disrespectful or rude, or that
they have nothing useful to contribute to decisions that
affect their lives.
ChAPTER FOUR
in summary
obligations relating to judicial and administrative proceedings
Chapter five
UNICEF/NYHQ2006-0163/mICHaEl kambEr
© UNICEF/NYHQ2009-1844/SUSaN markISz
Chapter five
obligations relating to judicial and administrative proceedings
general steps to be taken in all proceedings
1. Preparation
2. The hearing
3. Assessment of the capacity of the child
4. Feedback on the weight given to the views of the child
5. Complaints, remedies and redress
obligations relating to specific proceedings
Divorce and separation
Separation from parents and alternative care
Adoption and kafalah of Islamic law
The child offender
Child victims and child witnesses
Immigration and asylum proceedings
51
GeneraL steps to Be taKen
in aLL proCeedinGs
The responsibility to listen to and take
seriously what children have to say needs
to be understood by all those involved
in judicial and administrative proceedings.
These might include:
• court welfare offcers
• social workers
• probation offcers
• judges and magistrates
• lawyers
• mediators
• parents.
All these different actors will have a role
to play either throughout or at different
stages of the proceedings. Whenever a child
is involved in a proceeding, the child’s right
to be heard should be respected at every
stage. When developing the policies and
regulations relating to these stages, it would
be advisable to involve children who have
direct experience of such proceedings. Their
understanding of the challenges and barriers
they themselves faced, as well as knowledge
of what works, and why, would be an
invaluable source of guidance. Obviously, the
nature and level of children’s understanding
will vary considerably according to their
age and maturity. For very young children,
for whom the purpose and meaning of
court procedures themselves would not be
understood, it is not possible or appropriate
to seek to involve them directly in the
process.
1 preparation
Children are likely to feel very confused
and vulnerable when facing a court hearing.
Being small and young, less powerful
than the adults in control, and without
experience of how things work, can lead
to them feeling threatened and intimidated
by the process. The provision of clear and
practical information about the process is
an important way of allaying those fears
and helping children participate effectively.
Proper preparation is essential. Children
need information about their rights to
participate, what will happen and how
decisions are made. They cannot express
their views or talk about the issues if
they are not provided with appropriate
information. As soon as they are in contact
with the justice process, whatever the
nature of those proceedings, they should be
provided with the following information:
n Children’s role in the proceedings
Those responsible must ensure that,
consistent with their age and maturity,
children know and understand:
• their rights – the specifc rights the child
has in the relevant proceedings, including
the right to be heard, and how this will be
implemented
• how the system works, including what will
happen to the child, the role he or she
may play in it and the different procedural
steps
• what support will be available for the child
in the process and any systems available to
protect them during the hearing
• the appropriateness and consequences of
different options in or outside the court
proceeding
• any charges that are being made, or how a
follow-up to a complaint will be dealt with
• any mechanisms which can be used to
review decisions affecting the child
• the availability of services, such as health,
psychological or social, or organisations
that can provide support, and how to
access them and how to access any
support to pay for the services
• that they have a right either to
communicate directly to the proceedings
or to do so through a representative.
It is important that efforts are made to
ensure that they are aware of the possible
consequences of this choice. For example,
if the child is heard directly, she or he will
have the opportunity to respond to any
questions by the judge, or other decisionmaker, thus ensuring that her or his views
are fully understood
ChAPTER FIvE
oBLiGations reLatinGto judiCiaL
and administrative proCeedinGs
52
• the impact those views will have on any
decision that is made – for example,
children should be informed from the
outset that their right to be heard and to
have their views taken into consideration
does not imply that the subsequent
decision will be grounded in all or any
such views.
n The practical arrangements
The child, again in accordance with age
and maturity, also needs to be given
full information about the practical
arrangements for the hearing so that she or
he knows as far as possible what to expect.
For example, she or he needs to know:
• how, when and where the hearing will
take place
• who the participants will be
• how long it is likely to last
• what the format of the meeting will be
• who will be present
• the availability of any protective measures
• what degree of privacy and confdentiality
will apply to the child’s views
• who is allowed to speak
• how his or her views will be taken into
account
• when any decisions will be made and
by whom
• how that will be communicated to
the child.
The way in which the information is
provided is also important. All information
provided for children must be in a format
appropriate for their age. It may be helpful
to develop child-friendly information
packs which address the questions
children are likely to have when facing a
judicial or administrative proceeding. This
could be undertaken in partnership with
children themselves to ensure that the
pack addresses the concerns they have.
However, written materials alone may not
be suffcient. It is also often necessary to talk
the issues through with the child directly.
Providing the parents or legal guardians with
the information should not be an alternative
to communicating the information to a child.
In many circumstances, both the child and
the parents or legal guardians should receive
the information.
2the hearing
Children often face diffculties in pursuing
breaches of their rights and gaining access to
justice. There are two key issues to address
– ensuring the legal right of the child to
be heard, and ensuring an environment
where the child feels suffciently confdent
to talk. Children cannot be heard effectively
where the environment is intimidating,
hostile, insensitive or inappropriate for
their age.
n Ensuring the legal right to be heard
requires that:
• any child who has suffcient understanding
has access to the court
• efforts are made to eliminate barriers
for the child, such as: the cost of the
proceedings; the lack of legal counsel;
travel costs and protection to enable
them to travel to, and if necessary fnd
lodgings in the town where the hearing
will take place; protection from reprisals
where they are reporting a case of abuse
of rights violation to the authorities
• free legal aid, of high quality, is provided
• lawyers represent the views of the child
and ensure that their opinions, when
they are old enough to express them,
are brought before the court. Appointing
a person to represent the child’s best
interests does not, of itself, fulfl the
obligation to ensure that the child has
an opportunity to make their views
known. Professional opinion as to the best
interests of the child may conﬂict with the
child’s own views. In such circumstances,
governments must also ensure that the
child’s views are also heard and given
due weight
• judges respect the right of all children
to be heard and provide them with all
necessary information on how use this
right to effectively
• children’s views are taken seriously
• a child is never forced to give their
opinion.
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an exampLe oF inFormation provided to ChiLdren
throuGh a weBsite72
The Child andyouth Advocate for the Province of Alberta in Canada has developed a website
providing children and young people with comprehensive information about what happens in all
family court procedures they are likely to be involved in. The following is just one example of the
information included on the website:
Custody agreement withyouth
youth who are 16 years of age or older, who cannot live safely at home and who are living
independently from the parent could sign a voluntary agreement, called a custody agreement,
with a caseworker. The youth and the caseworker will develop a plan that includes where the
youth will live and what fnancial support will be provided.
If you are 16 years of age or older and you have signed a custody agreement to receive services,
you can expect to:
• take part in case planning and have a copy of the plan so you know what responsibilities you
and other people have;
• have your viewpoints and interests listened to;
• have your cultural, social and religious heritage respected;
• have your unique cultural, social and religious heritage respected, if you are aboriginal;
• talk to your caseworker about information on your fle. Your caseworker will know what
information can be shared. For more information about confdentiality, go to “What is Private”;
• have ongoing contact with important people in your life, like your brothers and sisters, unless
there are reasons why this contact could be harmful to you. Questions? Speak up – ask your
caseworker;
• contact the offce of the child and Youth advocate, if you feel no one is listening to you.
with your permission, the Advocate could also involve someone from your family or
community to help you represent your rights, interests and viewpoints; and have decisions
about you reviewed by:
– Mediation or some other way of resolving conﬂict;
– An administrative review;
– The Appeal Panel
other questions?
• Don’t hesitate to ask your caseworker about visits, a spending allowance, education,
graduation, health care, recreation, clothing or anything else. If you don’t understand what is
going on or what decisions are being made about you – speak up!
• tell an adult you trust if you are having a problem, especially if you are being abused or
mistreated. Tell someone if you feel that your cultural values are not being respected.
• If you have any questions about what you can expect while you are receiving services under a
custody agreement, ask your caseworker, your caregiver or the Child andyouth Advocate.
• remember, there are people who can help you!

72 http://advocate.gov.ab.ca/home/OCyA_youth_home.cfm

54
n Creating a child-rights-friendly environment
requires that:73
• in all proceedings, children are treated
with respect for their age, their special
needs, their competence and level of
understanding
• children are familiarised with the layout of
the court and the court actors – it may
be helpful to enable the child to visit the
court in advance of the hearing to get a
sense of what it looks like
• courts are made less intimidating, for
example, by judges wearing less formal
clothing, by enabling the child to see what
is going on, and by the introduction of
more informal seating
• language appropriate to the child’s age
and level of understanding is used, in
order to make them feel at ease
• all court decisions are explained as well as
the underlying reasons for them, so that
the child understands why the decision
has been made and what the implications
are or will be
• when children are heard or interviewed
in judicial and non-judicial proceedings,
judges and other professionals interact
with them with sensitivity, avoiding
unnecessary interviews or intimidation
• children are allowed to be accompanied
by their parents or, where appropriate,
an adult of their choice, unless doing so
would not be in the child’s best interests
• interview mechanisms such as video or
audio-recording or pre-trial hearings in
camera are used whenever possible; but
where the child must be in court, sight
screens are arranged to protect the child
where appropriate
• children are protected from any images
or information that could be harmful to
their welfare. In deciding on disclosure of
possibly harmful information to the child,
the judge should seek the advice of other
professionals, such as psychologists and
social workers
• court sessions involving children are
adapted to the child’s pace and attention
span, with regular breaks and hearings that
do not last too long
• disruption and distractions in between
court sessions are kept to a minimum
• as far as possible, interviewing and waiting
rooms are arranged for children in
separate facilities
• confdentiality is ensured for the child.

norweGian ChiLd aCt. seCtion 3174
As and when the child becomes able to form his or her own point of view on matters that concern
it, the parents shall listen to the child’s opinion before making a decision on the child’s personal
situation. Attention shall be paid to the opinion of the child, depending on the age and maturity of
the child. The same applies to other persons with whom the child lives or who are involved with
the child.
When the child reaches the age of seven, he or he shall be allowed to voice his or her views before
any decisions are made about the child’s personal situation, including which parent he or she is to live
with. When the child reaches the age of 12, the child’s opinion shall carry signifcant weight.

73 See also General Comment No. 10, ‘Children’s Rights in Juvenile
Justice’, CRC/C/GC/10, Feb 2007
74 Act No. 7 of 8 April 1981 relating to Children and Parents (The
Children Act), Ministry of Children and Equality, Last amended
spring 2010
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3 assessment of the capacity of the child
A child should not be excluded from a
hearing solely on the basis of age. The
courts should begin with a presumption of
capacity. Only where the court has genuine
concerns, based on evidence that the child
lacks capacity, should a child be denied the
right to express his or her views.

psyChoLoGiCaL researCh on ChiLd witnesses75
There has been signifcant psychological research about the memory, suggestibility and
communication capacity of children. It establishes that while children can be reliable witnesses,
children’s memories are less well developed than those of adults.76 Children are more suggestible
than adults and have greater diffculty in communicating what they know. There is no research,
however, that compares the honesty of children and adults.
As children become older, their memory improves. Even children as young as four years can provide
accurate information about what happened to them one or even two years earlier.77 Interestingly,
although older children and adults can give more information than younger children can about past
events that happened to them, older children are more likely than younger children to provide
inaccurate information about past events. Research also reveals that children are more likely to
consistently recall information about the core elements of an experience than about peripheral
elements, and thus inconsistencies about incidental details (such as descriptions of clothing or
setting) in their stories may not be an important marker as to the accuracy of their testimony.78
A major concern regarding child witnesses is their potential suggestibility. As a result of repeated or
misleading questions, the memory of a witness may become distorted. It is possible for a person who
has been subjected to repeated, suggestive questioning to develop ‘memories’ of events that did not
in fact occur. While children, especially young children, are more suggestible than adults, there is great
variation between individuals of the same age in suggestibility and in resistance to suggestion. There
is a large body of experimental research about the suggestibility of children, as well as some research
about the suggestibility of adults.79
The way in which children are questioned can also greatly affect what they are able to communicate.
Research studies reveal that children and adults generally provide more information in response to
specifc questions rather than to the open-ended questions that are typically posed during direct
examinations of witnesses.80 Children, especially young children, may lack the cognitive capacity to
provide meaningful and consistent answers to questions that involve frequency of events, time or
size, or that require explanation of motive (‘why’ questions), though if asked they will usually try to
answer. In addition, ‘yes or no’ questions are problematic because children, especially young children,
may have a bias towards producing ‘yes’ answers, and when asked such questions by unfamiliar adults,
young children will rarely respond with ‘I don’t know’.81

75 N Bala, K Ramakrishnan, R Lindsay and K Lee, ‘Judicial
Assessment of the Credibility of Child Witnesses’, Alberta Law
Review (2005) 42 Alta. L. Rev. 995 – 1017
76 M Bruck, S J Ceci and h hembrooke, ‘Reliability and Credibility
ofyoung Children’s Reports from Research to Policy and
Practice’, American Psychologist, 53:2, 136, 1998
77 See, eg, Carole Peterson, ‘Children’s Long-term Memory for
Autobiographical Events’, Developmental Review, 22, 2002, p. 370.
78 Carole Peterson, Lisa Moores and Gina White, ‘Recounting the
Same Events Again and Again: Children’s consistency across
multiple interviews’, Applied Cognitive Psychology, 15, 2001, p. 353
79 For reviews see, eg, Bruck, Ceci and hembrooke (note 76
above), p. 144; Thomas D Lyon, ‘Applying Suggestibility Research
to the Real World: The case of repeated questions’, Law and
Contemporary Problems, 65, 2002, p. 97
80 Karen J Saywitz et al., ‘Children’s Memory of a Physical
Examination Involving Genital Touch: Implications for reports
of child sexual abuse’, Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology
59, 1991, p. 682; Karen J Saywitz and Thomas D Lyon, ‘Coming
to Grips with Children’s Suggestibility’ in Mitchell Eisen, Gail S
Goodman and Jodi A Quas (eds) Memory and Suggestibility in the
Forensic Interview, Erlbaum, hillsdale, NJ, 2001, p. 85
81 Carole Peterson and Melody Grant, ‘Forced-choice: Are Forensic
Interviewers Asking the Right Questions?’, Canadian Journal of
Behavioural Science, 33, 2001, p. 118
56
There are two stages in determining the
capacity of the child:
n Does the child have the capacity to form
a view?
Wherever the child is capable of forming
a view, and wishes to do so, consideration
should be given to enabling the child to
express their views to the court. And as
pointed out earlier, the Committee on
the Rights of the Child stresses that very
young children are capable of forming a
view on matters affecting them. If the court
is making a decision affecting a child, it is
always important to make sure that it is as
fully informed of the child’s perspectives as
possible, including the views of very young
children. For example, where a decision
concerning the placement of a child is
being made, it is imperative that the court
is aware of what the child feels about the
proposal. In cases where a young child has
been abused, she or he will have memories
and views about what happened, and her or
his evidence will be vital to the court, and to
the pursuit of justice. Therefore, every effort
should be made in all cases to ensure that
the child has the opportunity to express
their views to the court.
n What weight should be attached to the
child’s views?
The court is obliged to give due weight
in accordance with the age and maturity
of the child. In other words, if the child is
competent to understand the implications
of their views, then these should be a
signifcant factor in settling an issue or
making a judgment. It will be necessary to
develop standards for assessing the capacity
of the child. One model which has been
adopted in respect of health decisions, but
can be applied with equal relevance to
judicial proceedings, identifes four standards
for assessing capacity:82
• ability to understand and
communicate relevant information
– The child needs to be able to
understand the alternatives available,
express a preference, articulate concerns
and ask relevant questions.
• ability to think and choose with
some degree of independence – The
child needs to be able to exercise a choice
without coercion or manipulation and to
think through the issues for him or herself.
• ability to assess the potential
for beneft, risk and harm – The
child must be able to understand the
consequences of different courses of
action, how they will affect him or her, the
risks involved and the short- and longterm implications.
• achievement of a fairly stable set of
values – The child needs to have some
value base from which to make a decision.
It is important in applying these tests
not to impose a higher requirement of
competence than would be applied to
adults, many of whom may struggle to meet
these thresholds.
82 C harrison et al., Bio-ethics for clinicians: Involving children in
medical decisions, Canadian Medical Association, Ottowa, 1997
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4 Feedback on the weight given to the
views of the child
Children are entitled to know what decision
has been made about them, and to be
informed about how her or his views were
considered. This feedback is a guarantee
that the views of the child are not only
heard as a formality, but are taken seriously.
Feedback may be given by the judge or by
the child’s lawyer where they have one. The
explanation of any decision or judgment
should be given to the child in a language
adapted to the child’s level of understanding
and should give the necessary information
on possible measures that could be taken,
such as appeal or complaint mechanisms.
5 Complaints, remedies and redress
“We fear headteachers more than the army,
police or parents. We want a free phone line
to report what we see.” Child in Rwanda85
Children are entitled to have access to
appeal or complaints procedures when
their right to have their views heard and
given due weight is disregarded and violated.
As the Committee on the Rights of the
Child has made clear: “For rights to have
meaning, effective remedies must be available
to redress violations. This requirement is
implicit in the CRC and consistently referred
to in the other six major international human
rights treaties.” 86 It is therefore important
to introduce legislation that makes this
right explicit, and provides children with
safe, accessible and speedy routes through
which to make complaints. The procedures
for applying to courts and using complaints
procedures should be accessible, childfriendly and widely publicised. Measures
should also be put in place to enable
children to seek redress under international
law using regional and international human
rights mechanisms and courts. National
bodies should exist to which children can
complain about breach of their rights under
the UNCRC. An Optional Protocol to the
UNCRC has been adopted by the UN
Human Rights Council which establishes an
international communications procedure
for children to be able to allege violation of
their rights. Once it enters into force, and
in those countries which ratify it, children
should be informed about how to use
this procedure, when all other avenues of
complaint have been exhausted.87
In some jurisdictions, there is legislation that
provides for the nullifcation of any decision
made by the court if a child has not been
properly consulted. Such legislation can be
a powerful means of holding the courts
accountable to the child.

what is meant By ‘CompetenCe’?
In the context of the criminal justice system in the United States, competence is defned as “suffcient
ability to consult with his attorney with a reasonable degree of rational understanding as well as factual
understanding of the proceedings against him”.83 Additional abilities have become accepted as part of
the criteria, including ability to understand the charges, current legal situation, relevant facts, legal
issues and procedures, the role of court personnel and potential legal defences, and the ability
to relate to the defence lawyer, explain pertinent facts, tolerate the stress of the trial and behave
appropriately in court.84

83 US Supreme Court, Dusky v United States, 362 US 402, 1960
84 R Redding, Adjudicative competence in juveniles: Legal and clinical
issues, Juvenile Forensic Evaluation Resource Center, University
ofvirginia, Charlottesville, 2000; and also G B Melton et al.,
Psychological evaluations for the court, Guilford, Newyork, 1997
85 K Pells, ‘No-one ever listens to us: Challenging Obstacles to
the Participation of Children andyoung People in Rwanda’ in
B Percy-Smith and N Thomas (eds) A Handbook of Children and
Young People’s Participation, Routledge, London, 2010
86 See the Committee’s General Comment No. 5, ‘General
Measures of Implementation for the Convention on the Rights
of the Child’, 2003, para. 24.
87 http://www.crin.org/law/crc_complaints/
58
Access to complaints mechanisms will need
to include:
• access to the courts.There should
be no lower age limit precluding
children’s access to the courts to seek
redress, although the child’s competence
to understand the implications of the
proceedings will have to be determined.
States should consider setting up a
procedure whereby proceedings can be
initiated on behalf of a child, where the
child lacks the capacity to do so for her or
himself, just as there are mechanisms or
procedures in many States for appropriate
representation of people with severe
learning diffculties and of elderly people
who lack capacity.
• access to independent complaints
procedures. Children need access to
independent complaints procedures which
provide remedies for rights violations
in all aspects of their lives, including in
alternative care, schools and all other
institutions. Complaints procedures must
provide robust mechanisms to ensure
that children are confdent that using
them will not expose them to risk of
violence or punishment. Again, age should
not be an impediment for a child to
access complaints mechanisms. Wherever
possible, children should have access to
independent advocacy to help them use
the procedures effectively. The powers of
the procedure should be clearly explained
to the child, and also the possibility of
ultimate appeal to the courts if they are
dissatisfed with the result of a complaint.
Children will need help in exercising their
right to make a complaint when their rights
are violated or when they wish to challenge
a decision of a court or other proceeding.
Help should be provided to children in all
settings:
• In institutions such as schools, daycare
centres, children’s homes, hospitals or
penal institutions, children should be able
to contact an ombudsman or a person in
a comparable role, in order to voice their
complaints. Children should know who
these persons are and how to get access
to them.
• In family conﬂicts, a child should be able
to turn to a person in the community. This
might be a social worker or community
development worker. Governments
should also consider the provision of
access to confdential counselling and
advice services.
• In courts, free legal representation should
be made available to children to facilitate
initiation of these procedures.

niCaraGua ensures ChiLdren’s views are heard
The right to participate in legal proceedings is not only required in the law, but failure to consult
children and to respect Article 12.2 of the UNCRC will lead to the nullifcation of all of the court
proceedings. (Nicaragua Children’s Code, Article 17)

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chapter fIve • oBLiGations reLatinG to judiCiaL and administrative proCeedinGs

an exampLe oF a soCiaL serviCes statutory CompLaints
proCedure
The following complaints procedure has been established in the United Kingdom to enable children
in local authority care to make a complaint; for example, if they are unhappy about a service they
have received, a decision made concerning their life, the way they were involved in a decision, or an
experience of abuse by a member of staff:
There are three stages to the procedure. However, you may not have to go through all of these. It will
depend on how satisfed you are with our response at the end of each stage.
stage 1 – resolution
you can make your complaint:
• over the telephone
• In writing
• In person, to the member of staff you know best
• By email using the online form
We want you to tell us what you are unhappy about and what you would like the service to
do to put it right. An advocate can be provided to assist you if need help with your complaint.
however, we may not be able to investigate an issue that happened more than 12 months ago.
Once we have received your complaint, you will be sent an acknowledgement letter within
two working days. The letter will tell you who will be looking into your complaint and how
long you can expect to wait for a response. Most complaints are resolved at this stage. After
our investigations are complete, you will receive a letter explaining the outcome within
20 working days.
stage 2 – investigation
At the end of Stage 1 if you are not satisfed with the outcome you can choose to have your
complaint investigated further. The Social Care Complaints Manager will contact you directly to
discuss the detail. however, it may be more appropriate to ask the offcer who has investigated
your complaint at Stage 1 to look again at the issues you remain unhappy with. This may be
all that is needed to resolve the complaint to your satisfaction. If it is decided that a Stage 2
Investigation is necessary, an investigating offcer independent of the service complained about is
then appointed. An external independent person is also necessary to shadow the investigation to
ensure that the process is fair and thorough.
So we can be sure of what we are to investigate, you will be asked to sign a defnition of
complaint. This will consist of the issues you remain unhappy with after Stage 1 and your desired
outcome (what you want the service to do to put things right). Once we are clear on your
defnition and outcome, the investigation can start and you will receive a letter telling you when
your complaint has been registered. The investigation will then commence. The investigating
offcer and independent person will contact you to arrange a meeting to discuss your complaint
and how they plan to investigate it. Once a draft report is ready, you may be asked to comment
on what has been found. If you wish to ask for any changes to this report, please discuss this
with the investigating offcer.
After the investigation is complete, a senior manager responsible for the service complained
about will adjudicate on your complaint.you should receive a letter within 25 working days (in
complex situations, this could take up to 65 working days), confrming:
• What was found;
• What the service has decided to do about it;
• Why the decisions were reached;
• What to do should you remain unhappy.
you will be kept informed of any delays.

continued overleaf
60

an exampLe oF a soCiaL serviCes statutory CompLaints
proCedure continued
stage 3 – review panel
When you receive the written outcome of Stage 2, you will also be sent details of how to ask
for the complaint to be heard by a Review Panel. If you wish the Review Panel to consider your
complaint, you must apply within 20 working days of receiving the written outcome to Stage 2.
A Review Panel is made up of three panel members independent of the Local Authority who
will consider your complaint and advise the Local Authority on what they could do to put things
right. A separate leaﬂet is available on the Review Panel Process. Once you have received your
fnal outcome from the Chief Executive, it will include information about what you must do if
you remain unhappy.
are there any other ways to complain?
yes.you can contact:your local Councillor; A Solicitor;your MP; The Local Government
Ombudsman.

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a ConFidentiaL CompLaints meChanism run By ChiLdren
in india88
Makkala Panchayats
The concept of Makkala Panchayat (children’s panchayat or village council) was conceived as a
village-centred programme to address the problems faced by children, in collaboration with the local
government and children themselves. It empowers children to participate at the local level through
an electorate consisting of all working children (6–18 years old) in the village, with representation
for all children including school-going children. Each Makkala Panchayat consists of a president,
vice-president and members (12–18 years old), and all the children of the village (aged 0–18) are
registered in it. Each Makkala Panchayat has a Makkala Mitra or adult children’s friend who is selected
by the children themselves on the basis of their sensitivity to children’s needs and, most importantly,
their readiness to help and guide them in times of crisis and need.
Makkala Anche Pettige (Children’s post Box)
This is a facility for children to write about physical, mental or educational problems that they face
but cannot express to the Makkala Mitra directly. Children can also write about their experiences to
other children, or use the Post Box to share their skills with others.
why Makkala Anche Pettige?
• to fnd solutions to personal problems that cannot be shared in public
• to write about issues and put them in the box
• to write stories, poems and put in the box
• to fnd solutions to educational and other problems faced by children.
where should the post Box be placed?
• It should be placed in each Ward where it can be accessed by all children
• children should decide on the actual location of the post Box
• the elected members of the respective Ward are responsible for the operation of the
Post Box
• It should be opened every week.
who will open the post Box?
• Makkala Mitra should open the Post Box
• Makkala Mitra should keep the names in the letters confdential
• children can also give a letter directly to the Makkala Mitra.

88 Adapted from: The Concerned for Working Children, The Makkala Panchayat Protocol, India, 2004
62
steps to Be taKen in aLL judiCiaL and
administrative proCeedinG inCLude:
• preparing children by providing them with accessible
information about:
– their role in the hearing, including their rights at each
stage, the support they can be given, how they can
participate, and how their views will be considered
– the practical arrangements such as when the hearing
will take place, and where, how long it will last, who will
be there, what protection he or she will be provided
with, and when and how decisions will be made
• ensuring that the child can be heard effectively in the
hearing by the introduction of legal rights which are
properly implemented, and creating child-friendly, safe and
accessible courts
• assessment of the capacity of the child by consideration
of whether the child is able to form a view of the issues
being addressed and, if so, what weight must be attached
to those views. There should be a presumption in favour
of the child’s capacity
• feedback to the child so that she or he knows exactly what
decisions have been made and why
• mechanisms for the child to make a complaint, or seek a
remedy or redress if her or his right to be heard has not
been properly implemented.
in summary
63
chapter fIve • oBLiGations reLatinG to judiCiaL and administrative proCeedinGs
oBLiGations reLatinGto
speCiFiC proCeedinGs
The following section sets out the specifc
obligations on governments to ensure that
children are able to express their views
in different judicial and administrative
proceedings and to have those views given
due weight.
divorce and separation
Children’s views are often disregarded
when the courts are determining where
a child should live, and the nature of any

uK researCh into ChiLdren’s views oFthe Courts89
Research in the UK into children’s experiences when their parents are separating or divorcing
found that:
• Most of the children liked the idea of someone appointed by the court to help them have
their say in the proceedings. Indeed, some children would have liked to go to court and tell the
judge directly.
• Some children were clearly ignorant, confused and made anxious knowing that their parents
were going to court to contest residence or contact. They wanted to go to court but were
intimidated by the thought of doing this.
• almost all of the children were confused at one stage or another as to who was involved in their
case, and what court proceedings entailed. This included the ‘guardian’ who was appointed to
represent their views.
• Where the children did understand (or thought they did) that the guardian’s role was to
‘represent’ them, they thought that this must mean that their views would be accurately reported
to the court. If this did not appear to be what happened, they were particularly annoyed and
upset. They also resented what they saw as breach of confdentiality when the guardian passed on
information they had thought would be kept secret.
• Where the children had established effective, supportive relationships with their guardian and/
or solicitors, they reported having been made more confdent, in terms of being able to get their
views over to the court, but also of being treated with respect, and in the case of teenagers, of
being regarded as young people capable of having their own independent opinion.
implications
• the importance of reliable information. Children often do not know how to ask for
information that would help them understand what is happening. Lack of information leads to
anxiety and confusion. It is not enough to distribute leaﬂets to parents to encourage them to keep
their children informed, or to give children themselves leaﬂets (however well designed) explaining
the nature of family court proceedings. Children caught up in these disputes need a much more
sophisticated and personal source of support and information, ideally right from when the case
has been put down for a frst hearing.
• meeting children’s support needs. Children need emotional comfort and support throughout
the litigation process. Without it they are more likely to be ‘lost’, withdrawn, depressed, intimidated
or angered by their contact with the family justice system.
• Giving the child a voice in court. Children need a person to help them have a say in
proceedings who is independent of their parents, and who they trust and who can explain what is
happening throughout the process.
• making courts child-friendly. Children want courts to be more child-friendly and to work in
such a way that they could, if they so wished, put their view directly to the judge, or at least meet
the person who was making important decisions about them.

89 Gillian Douglas, Representing Children in Private Law Proceedings:
Hearing the children and clarifying the role, www.uea.ac.uk/swk/
iccd2006/Presentations/wed_am/Douglas
64
access arrangements, following divorce or
separation. Parents may feel that by keeping
things from children they are protecting
them. They may fnd it diffcult to share with
their children the diffculties they are facing
within their marriage. However, the evidence
from children indicates clearly that they are
almost always more aware of the diffculties
than their parents give them credit for, and it
is the uncertainty and fear of decisions being
made without their involvement which is
the cause of most distress. Not only will
involving them reduce these anxieties, it will
also ensure that any decisions that are made
take into account their wishes and feelings.
Parents are frequently too preoccupied
with their own pain and distress when a
marriage fails, to take adequate account of
the concerns of the child. And children will
often be reluctant to express their views
to parents when they are concerned that
this might exacerbate the conﬂict between
their mother and father. Therefore the
opportunity for children to be able to
articulate their concerns to a third party
is extremely important. Article 12 does
require that children’s views concerning
their future family life are solicited and given
due weight in accordance with the children’s
age and maturity. However, children should
never be forced to express a view when
they do not wish to do so. And they should
never be expected to choose between
parents.
In order to ensure that the right to be heard
is established as a matter of entitlement for
every child capable of forming a view, it is
necessary to consider the introduction of the
following legislation, regulations and practice:
• When courts are making orders affecting
children, they must always fnd out
whether the child’s views have been
sought and addressed. It must not be left
to the individual judgement of the courts.
This can be achieved in a number of ways:
– The courts can require that parents
seek their children’s views and report
to the courts on both what the children
want and how their views have been
accommodated.
– The court can appoint a ‘guardian’
or advocate to speak with the child,
ascertain their views and report these
to the court.
– The court can hear from the child
directly. Where the child is of suffcient
age and understanding, the judge should
invite the child for a hearing in private
to give them the opportunity to express
their views about any proposals made
for their future and what they would
like to happen. It is then up to the child
to choose whether or not to use that
invitation.
• Further consideration could be given to
the introduction of a provision whereby
decisions will be rendered invalid unless
appropriate measures to ascertain the
child’s views have been undertaken. This
will place an active obligation on the
courts to ensure that they have made
all the efforts necessary to hear what
children have to say.
• Children should be afforded the right to
challenge any arrangements that have
been made on their behalf, either at the
time of their making or subsequently.
As children grow older and their
circumstances and life styles change,
arrangements made at the time of a
divorce may cease to be appropriate.
It is important for children to have the
opportunity for any arrangement to be
reviewed and adapted to take account of
any changes in their situation. This right
should apply both to decisions made by
the court and to informal arrangements
made by the parents.
• In either of these circumstances, the
child should be given the opportunity to
express views to the court, either directly
or through a representative. The role of
the representative should be made clear
to the child so that they understand
exactly what help and support they are
entitled to, what will happen during the
proceedings, how they can communicate
EvERy ChILD’S RIGhT TO BE hEARD
65
chapter fIve • oBLiGations reLatinG to judiCiaL and administrative proCeedinGs
their views to the courts and what degree
of confdentiality they will be afforded.
• Children should be entitled to information
on their rights to express their views in
these circumstances, and how to realise
those rights. Civil codes should set out
the obligations of the courts to provide
information to children.
separation from parents and
alternative care
Many children have to live apart from
their parents, temporarily or permanently,
either because their parents are unable
to look after them or because they have
faced or are at risk of violence, neglect or
abuse within their families. When decisions

respeCtinG ChiLdren’s views when parents divorCe
Bosnia and herzegovina90
The Constitution of Bosnia and herzegovina and the Entity Constitutions guarantee freedom of
opinion and expression for every child, as well as for all citizens. This principle is particularly applied
in the case of parental divorce: the opinion of the child is respected concerning which parent the
child wants to live with if he or she is capable of expressing this wish. The wish of a minor is also
respected concerning recognition of paternity when the minor reaches the age of 16.
andorra91
In the event of annulment of marriage, separation or divorce, the judge must, wherever possible, seek
the opinion of the minor child, when taking measures relating to his or her education and to custody.
Similarly, in case of adoption, the judge must hear the opinion of the minor, this being mandatory
from the age of 10 and optional before that age. Once the minor attains the age of 12, his or her
consent is necessary for agreement to adoption.

what ChiLdren want when parents divorCe – a ChiLdren’s
BiLL oF riGhts92
The following suggestions highlight some of the views expressed by children who have been through
their parents’ divorce:
• recognise that we love and need both parents.
• Don’t turn us into messengers. Mum and Dad should talk to each other directly.
• Don’t say bad things about our other parent.
• Don’t grill us about what is going on at our other parent’s home.
• Don’t ask us to take sides.
• Don’t make us feel like we’re being disloyal to you if we enjoy being with our other parent.
• If you have something angry to say to our other parent, don’t say it around us.
• Don’t purposely forget important clothing or gear when we are going to our other parent’s place.

90 Committee on the Rights of the Child, States Party Report,
Bosnia and herogovina, CRC/C/11/Add.28
91 Committee on the Rights of the Child, States Party Report,
Andorra, CRC/C/61/Add.3
92 http://www.divorcecentral.com/parent/kidbill.html
66
are made about alternative placements
for children, either through the courts or
informally by welfare agencies, children also
have the right to be heard, and the views
given weight in those decisions. Article 9(2)
requires that in any proceedings to consider
separation of a child from his or her parents,
“all interested parties” must be given an
opportunity to participate. Clearly, the
child is an interested party, and all children
capable of forming a view must therefore
have the opportunity to express those
views. This means that measures must be
introduced to ensure that:
• children are able to give their views
throughout the process of assessment,
separation and placement
• when care plans are being drawn up,
children have the opportunity to be
present at any discussions or meetings
• in any court proceedings affecting them,
they are made party to the proceedings
and have access to representation where
required93
• where the court appoints a guardian to
advise the courts on the best interests
of the child, the child is also entitled to
separate representation to ensure that
their views are also presented to the
court
• consideration is also given to mechanisms
such as alternative dispute resolution in
which respect for the child’s right to be
heard is assured.94

throuGh the eyes oFyounG peopLe95
Research in British Columbia, Canada, with children and young people, solicitors, judges and service
providers led to the following recommendations for improving the family court processes – including
support for young people’s meaningful participation in decisions affecting them.
1. Changes in attitudes and approaches so adults in the Family justice system can
better support young people and their participation, including:
• approaching young people with trust, respect and understanding;
• Building a common framework for professionals who work in the system so they can work
together better to support young people;
• education and training for decision-makers and those supporting young people so they are better
informed about young people’s rights and what works best for young people;
• practice standards, screening and certifcation to ensure that those people who work with young
people are doing a good job for them and their families;
• Monitoring and evaluation of the system to ensure that it is doing a good job in supporting young
people and their families.
2. improved support to young people directly, including:
• Information for young people in a way they understand;
• one caring adult to support each young person and their participation in the family court system.
3. improvements in the system to support young people’s participation, including:
• Legislative and procedural rule changes: a presumption that all young people will participate in
decisions affecting them;
• a dedicated, integrated, less adversarial family justice system;
• a process that focuses on the young people affected by decisions, and helps family disputes end
more quickly;
• an array of options to support the meaningful participation of young people;
• an advocacy role for the British columbia representative for children and Youth.

93 Day of General Discussion, ‘Children without Parental Care’,
2006, CRC/C/153
94 Ibid.
95 Through the eyes of young people: Meaningful participation in British
Columbia family court processes, IICRD/Law Society of BC, 2006,
www.iicrd.org/familycourt
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adoption and kafalah of islamic law
Article 21(a) states that in any adoption
proceedings or kafalah of Islamic law,
“persons concerned” must have given their
informed consent. The child is clearly a
concerned person. The Committee on the
Rights of the Child notes that a number
of countries have introduced an age limit,
above which the child is required to give
formal consent to an adoption, or decisions
relating to custody and access. However,
wherever possible, it is important to
introduce the necessary mechanisms to
ensure that no child capable of forming a
view is adopted against their express wishes,
at whatever age, and to ensure that no age
limit applies to the right to express a view in
these proceedings. The Hague Convention
on Protection of Children and Co-operation
in Respect of Intercountry Adoption
requires that, in adoptions, the child must
be provided with appropriate information
and counselling, and give consent to the
adoption where this is required. Any consent
must be given freely, without inducements.
the child offender
Thousands of children get caught up
every day in criminal justice systems which
fail to create opportunities for them to
defend themselves effectively or to gain
access to justice. The system, too often, is
intimidating, alienating, hostile, and designed
for adults. Much of the change needed lies
beyond the scope of this handbook, and
is dealt with in the General Comment
on Juvenile Justice.96 But one of the main
barriers is that there are no mechanisms
which ensure that children can be heard
properly. All the general provisions relating
to the preparation and the hearing, detailed
on pages 51–62, apply equally to children
in criminal justice proceedings, but some
specifc additional measures are needed
to ensure that the right of children to
be heard is fully recognised in criminal
proceedings.
• Any child who is alleged to have, accused
of having, or recognised as having infringed
penal law has the right to be heard during
96 General Comment No. 10, ‘Children’s Rights in Juvenile Justice’,
CRC/C/GC/10, February 2007

exampLes oF LeGisLation to Give ChiLdren
the riGht to Consent to adoption
section 233, Children’s act 2005, south africa
(1) A child may be adopted only if consent for the adoption has been given by –
(a) each parent of the child, regardless of whether the parents are married or not:
provided that, if the parent is a child, that parent is assisted by his or her guardian;
(b) any other person who holds guardianship in respect of the child; and
(c) the child, if the child is –
(i) 10 years of age or older; or
(ii) under the age of 10 years, but is of an age, maturity and stage of development to
understand the implications of such consent.
section 137(6) Child and Family services act r.s.o 1990, ontario, Canada
“Consent of person to be adopted”
An order for the adoption of a person who is seven years of age or more shall not be made
without the person’s written consent.

68
all stages of the judicial process.99This will
include:
– in the pre-trial stage
– when arrested and interviewed by the
police, and by the prosecutor and the
investigating judge
– through the adjudication and disposition
process; and
– in the implementation of any imposed
measures.
Specialised, free legal aid systems are
needed, to provide children with qualifed
support, assistance and representation
to ensure that this right is fully realised.
However, children should not be
compelled to give testimony. They have the
right to remain silent if they so choose.
• When measures are applied to divert
children from the juvenile justice system,
children must always be given the
opportunity to give free and voluntary
consent. They must also be provided with
legal and other advice and assistance on
whether the diversion offered is appropriate
and desirable, and on the possibility of
review of the measure. Parental consent to
a proposed diversionary measure cannot
replace the consent of the child.
• Children must be informed promptly and
directly about the charges against them
in a language they understand. They must
also have information about the juvenile
justice process and what measures might
be taken by the court.
• The proceedings should be conducted
in an atmosphere enabling the child to
participate and to express him or herself
freely. All the measures described on
pages 51–54 need to be implemented to
ensure that the child does not feel too
intimidated to speak.
• The court and other hearings of a child in
conﬂict with the law should be conducted
behind closed doors. The child’s privacy
must be protected. Exceptions to this rule
should be very limited, clearly outlined in
national legislation, and only made when
doing so would clearly be in the best
interests of the child.
• Children must be provided with
opportunities to appeal against any
decision by which they are found guilty.

a judGment oFthe european Court oF human riGhts97
On 12 February 1993, T andv, when they were 10 years old, had played truant from school and
abducted a two-year-old boy, James Bulger, from a shopping precinct, taken him on a journey of
over two miles and then battered him to death and left him on a railway line to be run over. The
proceedings which followed against the two offenders gave rise to a judgment of the European Court
of human Rights which was publicly much debated.
In respect of the right to a fair trial enshrined in Article 6 of the European Convention of human
Rights, the Court clearly stated that “in respect of a young child charged with a grave offence attracting
high levels of media and public interest, it would be necessary to conduct the hearing in such a way as to
reduce as far as possible his or her feelings of intimidation and inhibition”. The Court also noted that,
although the applicant’s legal representatives were seated … “within whispering distance”, it is highly
unlikely that the applicant would have felt suffciently uninhibited, in the tense courtroom and under
public scrutiny, to have consulted with them during the trial or that, indeed, given his immaturity and
his disturbed emotional state, he would have been capable outside the courtroom of cooperating
with his lawyers and giving them information for the purposes of his defence. The Court found
accordingly a violation of Article 6.98

97 ‘Children and prisons: what can we do better?’, 2009 Janusz Korczak
Lecture organised by Thomas hammarberg, Commissioner for
human Rights, and given by Maud de Boer-Buquicchio, Deputy
Secretary-General of the Council of Europe (Tromsø, 18 June 2009)
98 Cases of V. v United Kingdom and T. v United Kingdom of
16 December 1999
99 See General Comment No. 10, ‘Children’s Rights in Juvenile
Justice’, CRC/C/GC/10, 2007, for a more detailed elaboration.
EvERy ChILD’S RIGhT TO BE hEARD
69
chapter fIve • oBLiGations reLatinG to judiCiaL and administrative proCeedinGs
• Consideration should be given to the
introduction of traditional or restorative
justice procedures which focus on
rehabilitation and provide non-retributive
mechanisms for children to express
their views and have them taken into
account.100 Restorative justice is an
approach that emphasises the importance
of repairing the harm caused by crime.
When victims, offenders and community
members meet to decide how to do that,
the results can be transformational.
• If a child is deprived of his or her liberty,
on any ground, she or he has the right to
challenge the legality of the deprivation
of liberty before a court or other
competent body.
• Children in custody must be provided
with the opportunity to make requests
or complaints, without censorship, to
the central administration or judicial
authority. Children need to have access
to information about these mechanisms.
The system for using any complaints
mechanism must be straightforward and
accessible. And the child must not be
exposed to any risk or punishment if she
or he does make a complaint.
When planning reform of juvenile justice,
governments should also consider consulting
children who have been through the system.
The United Nations Guidelines for the
Prevention of Juvenile Delinquency (the
Riyadh Guidelines) emphasise that “young
persons should have an active role and
partnership within society and should not be
considered as mere objects of socialisation
or control”. The Guidelines note that
increasingly, the voices of children involved
in the juvenile justice system are becoming
a powerful force for improvements, reform
and the fulflment of rights. Children can also
be involved in the formulation, development
and implementation of proposed policies
and programmes. They can provide valuable
insights into what needs to be done to
reform them to bring them better into line
with international human rights standards,
as well as how to achieve better outcomes.
Too often, the punitive approach adopted
by governments simply confrms children
in a life of crime. Interviews with children
about their experiences within the justice
system often demonstrate graphically the
vicious cycle of youth offending, arrest,
trial, imprisonment, release and recidivism.
They can therefore contribute their
experiences towards positive reform. In
this way, consulting with children not only
can contribute to more effective legislation,
policy and practice, but it can play a
therapeutic role for the children involved.

appLyinG prinCipLes oF restorative justiCe101
Restorative justice is an approach which moves away from a merely punitive response to the child,
by actively seeking to engage them in taking responsibility for their actions. It requires that:
• children participate fully
• restitution is offered to the victim
• the child has the opportunity to acknowledge the harm that he or she has caused
• a sense of community is restored.
Any measures to divert the child from criminal activity should be commensurate with the offence
and take into consideration the child’s age and individual circumstances, the child’s willingness to
cooperate, the impact of the crime on victim and community, any previous offence and opportunity
for diversion, and the availability and strength of family and community support.

100 See the following website for information on models of
restorative justice with children: http://www.restorativejustice.
org/university-classroom/02world/mideast/children
101 Juvenile Justice: modern concepts of working with children in conﬂict
with the law, Save the Children, 2004
70

invoLvinG ChiLdren in BanGLadesh in reForm oF
the prison system102
The aim of this research was to discover and document the views and experiences of children who
had been either in jail or virtually incarcerated in a state ‘shelter home’. Street children in Bangladesh
often get arrested and sent to prison and/or are held in protective custody in what are known as
‘shelter homes’ but which are really prisons for all practical purposes. The research was based on the
participation of 14 street children who, over a two-year period, took part in a consultation process
among themselves, with other children and with non-governmental organisations (NGOs). Information
was gathered from children, and subsequently discussed in depth, through a range of initiatives:
• a video was made, looking at the experiences of three children from the group.
• research was carried out on the numbers and condition of children held in Dhaka central Jail, a
correctional centre, and state and private shelters.
• research was carried out into the abuse of children in protective custody.a workshop
on children’s justice issues, using the fndings of the research and the video, was held with
representatives of government organisations, NGOs, the media, etc.
• a workshop involving 120 children from different social backgrounds was held to discuss ‘State
violence against children’. A list of recommendations came out of the children’s discussions at this
workshop, and was directed at a wide range of audiences: parents, government departments, the
police, the courts, jail authorities, NGOs, the media, politicians, and other children. Following the
workshop, a booklet was produced for the UNCRC Committee meeting on ‘State violence against
children’ in Geneva in September 2000.

102 Ibid.
103 http://www.unicef.org/ceecis/reallives_4277.html

denis – an editor-in-ChieF Behind Bars in moLdova103
Denis, aged 18, is the Editor-in-Chief of the frst newspaper in Moldova for people in prison. The
newspaper, AerZona, is published in the Lipcani Penitentiary for Minors, with UNICEF support.
victor Rusu, deputy chief of the penitentiary and coordinator of AerZona, recounts: “When we started
this newspaper, the boys here were not very willing to write. They did not see any point in working on a
newspaper. However, now many people want to see their names on its pages. Some write poems, or tell their
life story, while others write dreams of their future life. For many years, Denis had been a street child. He
was sent to the correctional institution for theft. This newspaper and the position of Editor-in-Chief have given
self-confdence back to Denis.”
At the planning meetings, Denis listens to everyone; he praises those who are industrious ones
and criticises those who lack initiative. he talks about his own experience: “People constantly make
mistakes, but if you do not give them a second chance, they will make mistakes again. The three years I have
spent here made me understand that you have to live and not merely exist. There is not much time left
before my release, but I am not afraid of freedom any more. I already know what to do with my hands. I’ve
learnt to write, use the computer; I know the basics of layout. It is something, isn’t it?”
In fve months, when he has fnished serving his sentence, Denis will pass his duties to another boy who
may also see salvation in journalism. And if not salvation, then at least a chance not to be excluded from
society when he is released. That was the philosophy of the project, fnanced by UNICEF and carried out
by the NGO,youth Media Centre. Even though not all the 100 or so young people in the correctional
institution take an active part in publishing this newspaper, all of them are loyal readers. “At the beginning
we used to read it only in the penitentiary. But the residents started to send it home to their parents and friends.
Now there is a real fght for each issue, and we have to make 100 extra copies,” says Denis.

EvERy ChILD’S RIGhT TO BE hEARD
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chapter fIve • oBLiGations reLatinG to judiCiaL and administrative proCeedinGs
Child victims and child witnesses
In many countries, there is a reluctance
to involve child victims and witnesses of a
crime as witnesses in court proceedings.
However, under Article 12, they must be
given an opportunity to fully exercise their
right to freely express their views.104This is
often challenging because in many cases the
child, particularly in abuse cases, is often very
young, and is likely to be suffering from the

un GuideLines on justiCe in matters invoLvinG
ChiLdviCtims and witnesses oF Crime105
The following extract from the child-friendly version of the Guidelines produced by UNICEF and
the United Nations Offce on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) provides information for children on
protecting their right to be heard in the justice system:
what are your rights?
you have the right to be heard and to express views and concerns. This means you have a right
to give your opinion, to be listened to and taken seriously. All children have the right to say
what they think should happen when adults are making decisions about their lives. This includes
decisions made in a legal process. As children grow, they will have more responsibility to make
choices that affect their lives. Professionals and other people in the justice system should make
every effort to allow child victims and witnesses to express themselves freely and in their own
way about what they think and feel by:
• Making sure that child victims and witnesses are able to talk about their worries and fears
about taking part in the justice process. Children should be allowed to decide how they give
their testimony and encouraged to talk about their feelings after the trial is over;
• Making sure that adults take the worries, fears and opinions of children seriously. When it is
not possible to do something the child has asked, it is important to explain, so that the child
understands why. People involved in the justice process – such as policemen or judges – are
interested in what you want to tell them. Do not hesitate or feel stupid because you can’t
fnd your words or you don’t know how to explain what you have to say. Just help them to
understand that you have something to say, and they will help you. If you want to speak to
someone in particular and you don’t want other people to hear what you say, you can ask to
speak to this person in private, without other people there.
making rights real
Professionals should receive training:
• to learn about human rights, especially the rights of the child.this includes the understanding
that child victims and witnesses are not all the same and have different needs;
• to learn the correct way to behave when working with children and how to explain their
work to children;
• to learn how to speak to children of all ages so that children feel comfortable and understand
what is going on. This includes listening to children and helping to reassure them if they are
confused or afraid;
• to learn ways of questioning children that will not frighten or harm them but will help to
reveal the truth.

104 United Nations Economic and Social Council resolution 2005/20,
‘Guidelines on Justice in Matters involving Childvictims and
Witnesses of Crime’, United Nations Economic and Social
Council resolution 2005/20, in particular arts. 8, 19 and 20.
Available at: www.un.org/ecosoc/docs/2005/Resolution%202005-
20.pdf.
105 For the offcial version of the UN Guidelines see Economic
and Social Council resolution 2005/20 of 22 July 2005. This
child-friendly version, which has been produced by UNICEF and
UNODC with the support of the Innocenti Research Centre
and the International Bureau for Children’s Rights (IBCR), is
meant as guidance for children and for professionals working
with children, and is not an offcial UN document.

72
trauma associated with the abuse. A balance
has to be found between, on the one hand,
the need to pursue justice in order to hold
the perpetrator to account, and on the
other, avoidance of further abuse of the
child through damaging and painful court
proceedings. Particular care is therefore
needed to ensure that every effort is made
to diminish the risk to the child.
Creating a safe and accessible environment for
the child
In order to ensure that the proceedings
do not serve to further traumatise a child
witness, consideration needs to be given to:
• availability of health, psychological and
social services for the child
• availability of protection for the child
during the hearing
• boundaries on the form of questioning
allowed by the defence lawyers
• the time frame for the process – ensuring
that it does not drag over a long period
• privacy and confdentiality for the child
– the media and public should never be
allowed in the courtroom
• avoidance of repeated testimonies
• possibility for interviewing the child
outside of the courtroom in child-friendly
interview rooms and the admissibility of
this material through audio or video tapes
• the avoidance of the child needing to
see the abuser – use of video recordings,
screens or separate rooms
• information on the possibilities of
receiving reparation, and the provisions
for appeal.
Additional measures are needed to
ensure that any child with a disability can
be heard effectively. Article 13 of the
Convention on the Rights of Persons with
Disabilities requires that age-appropriate
accommodations are made for children with
disabilities to ensure their effective access
to justice. Such measures would relate to
issues including: physical access to the court;
access to sign interpreters; advocates with
whom the child can communicate, and
who can represent the child’s views; access
to information in appropriate formats;
and forms of questioning that promote
the child’s understanding and capacity to
express their views.

eGypt’s amended ChiLdren’s aCt no. 126 oF 2008,
seCtion 116 Bis (d)
“Child victims and witnesses shall have the right to be heard and treated with dignity and
compassion, enjoy the full respect for their physical and psychological and moral safety, have the right
to gain access to health and social care and legal assistance, enjoy rehabilitation and reintegration
to society in line with guiding principles of the United Nations on the provision of justice to child
victims and witnesses.”

ChiLdren as witnesses: CreatinG a supportive environment
The following suggestions from a court in Jersey in the Channel Islands provide guidance for
judges and magistrates, as well as court offcials, child welfare offcers and lawyers, on how to
create an environment in which children who are appearing before the court as witnesses can be
helped to give evidence effectively and without experiencing unnecessary trauma and distress or
inappropriate treatment:

continued opposite
EvERy ChILD’S RIGhT TO BE hEARD
73
chapter fIve • oBLiGations reLatinG to judiCiaL and administrative proCeedinGs

ChiLdren as witnesses: CreatinG a supportive environment
continued
• identify cases involving child witnesses on the defendant’s frst appearance in court.
• set a timetable. Don’t let the case drag on. Keep making progress. Don’t accede to
spurious applications to adjourn.
• identify the issues in the case at an early stage. This is vital to be able to manage
disclosure, rule on admissibility and generally prevent delay. Formal admissions may be made and
eliminate the need for the child, for example, to have to see photographs of their own injuries.
• If the child will have to refer to their own body, consider having a diagram prepared.
• deal with legal arguments where possible before, not on the day of the trial with the
child waiting to give evidence.
• Find out the child’s views as to how they would like to give evidence – some might prefer
to be in court with screens.
• if using technology, make sure it works and that those in court can operate it.
• Can the child give evidence from another building by video link? Do you really need
the child in the court?
• If you have to use the court, ensure a pre-court visit and practise using the video/tv
link. Does the child need to see inside the courtroom at all?
• Make sure there are separate exits and entrances to keep the child away from other
witnesses and the defendant or, if there are not, ensure different arrival and departure times
so they don’t meet.
• ensure the child has refreshments and something to do while waiting.
• how old is the child? Check understanding of language and attention span. Give
direction as to breaks and the type of language in which questioning will be allowed.
• who will accompany the child?the child should get to know the person frst.
Ideally a trained witness-support volunteer (who must have been subject to vetting for
suitability to work with children).
• ensure the supporter knows how to alert you to a child not understanding or becoming
distressed (yellow card to suggest the child is becoming uneasy, red card to stop?).
• has the child been taken through any literature designed to explain court procedure?
• meet the child. It may be benefcial as you will have to speak to the child during the trial
and the child will have confdence in you.visit the prosecution and the defence counsel but
make it clear that you are in charge.
• wigs and gowns, on or off? Ask the child.
• timing of child’s evidence. Children are generally more alert in the mornings so it is better
to take their evidence then. If there is to be legal argument, start that the afternoon before.
• when should the child view the video? If the court is to view a lengthy video, consider
when it is best that the child sees that. It may be better that the child sees it the day before
and arrives in court after the court has seen the video.
• who can the child see? Ensure that the child cannot see the defendant either in court or
via a Tv link.
• who should be able to see the child on thetv link or behind the screen?
Advocates, judge and jury. The defendant, the press and the public do not need to see the
child and it could be very distressing to the child to know that they would be seen.
• is it in the interests of justice that the public be in court? Forbid publication of the
identity of children and do not allow any prurient member of the public to see the case for
whatever dubious reasons. Perhaps one nominated member of the press is suffcient.
• Cross-examination. Keep counsel under control as to their questioning and body language.
Do not ask a child to look at photographs of their own injuries or point to intimate parts of
their bodies. A body diagram might help.
• saying thank you. Thank the child at the end of their evidence. Research shows that
children had a better experience of court, even if the defendant was acquitted, if they were
supported throughout and thanked at the end.
• Feedback. Ask parties for feedback at the end.you can always improve.

74
Addressing the capacity of the child as a
witness
The child is often the only witness to the
abuse she or he has suffered. Accordingly,
unless she or he is able to give evidence
in court, a case will often get dropped, the
perpetrator gets away with impunity, and
the child is denied justice. Three common
concerns are raised, all of which can be
addressed:
n Children are not competent to give
evidence. Courts in many countries are
unwilling to accept the validity of young
children as witnesses. Furthermore, the
tests that are applied to assess children’s
capacities do not allow children to express
themselves effectively. Too often, judges and
others in judicial proceedings underestimate
children’s capacities, or fail to provide
adequate tests through which to assess
the child’s competence. Accordingly, many
competent children are denied the chance
to give evidence. The courts should start
with a presumption of competence. Judges
need to be given training on how to provide
an environment in which young children
can express themselves, and tools need to
be developed through which children can
demonstrate their levels of competence
effectively.
n Children are prone to fantasy and are
therefore less likely than adults to tell the
truth. The testimony of a child should not
be presumed invalid or untrustworthy by
reason of his or her age and maturity. There
is no evidence that children are more likely
to lie than adults.
n Children are thought to be harmed by
appearing in court. If all the measures outlined
above are implemented, they will signifcantly
reduce the potential for harm to the child.
It is also important to recognise that failure
to prosecute may also place the child at
risk, and have important implications for the
child’s confdence in the justice system.

approaChes to determininGthe CompetenCe oF
a ChiLd witness106
determining intelligence and memory. With a young child, asking questions about family,
school, counting, and knowledge of the alphabet and colors can provide a broad sense of the child’s
intelligence and memory. With older children, more diffcult intellectual skills can be assessed,
such as basic reading, math, or other problem-solving tasks. Parents or guardians also can usually
provide information about their child’s intelligence and memory. If a parent or guardian’s credibility
in providing such information becomes an issue or is in question, teachers typically can provide
information about the child’s intelligence and memory and they usually are less biased reporters. If a
child witness is found to have signifcant defcits in intelligence and/or memory, this may be grounds
to challenge competence.
ability to observe, recall, and communicate. A good way to assess a child’s ability to observe,
recall, and communicate experiences is to ask a parent or guardian of the child (outside the child’s
presence) to provide detailed descriptions of recent and distant past memorable events that the
child experienced or witnessed. The child can then be asked (outside the presence of the parent
or guardian) what he or she recalls about those events, and the two accounts can be compared.
Examples of recent experiences might include what the child ate that day or who the child saw

continued opposite
106 Taken directly from S B Carter, Child Witness Competency:
When Should the Issue be Raised?, www.forensicexperts.net/…/
Competency%20to%20testify%20SBC.doc
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approaChes to determininGthe CompetenCe oF
a ChiLd witness continued
that day. Examples of distant past events might include what happened on the child’s birthday, a
memorable holiday, a feld trip, or a vacation. Of course, this procedure would only produce valid
results if neither the child or the parent/guardian knew about the procedure before it is was
initiated. The child’s teacher can also provide information about the child’s ability to experience
events and report them with accuracy since such situations often arise in a classroom setting.
understanding of truth and lies. In order to assess a child’s understanding of the concepts of
truth and lie, questions about right and wrong, real and make-believe, and truth and lie typically are
asked. however, it is important to recognize that some types of questions are more developmentally
appropriate than others. For example, when assessing children’s understanding of these dichotomies,
interviewers routinely ask children if they know the difference between them. however, asking
children to explain the difference between two concepts is a more developmentally diffcult task
than asking what each concept means. In other words, questions such as, “What does it mean to tell
the truth?” and “What does it mean to tell a lie?” are more developmentally appropriate for young
children than asking, “What is the difference between the truth and a lie?”
It also is important to recognize that very young children often are unable to answer even these
easier questions in a narrative form due to their underdeveloped language skills. This does not
necessarily mean that four-year-olds do not understand the meaning of truth and lies. It also does
not mean that the open-ended questions should not be asked. The relevant question is whether
a child who is placed in a courtroom situation, and asked questions about an event they either
witnessed or experienced, can distinguish what is the truth and what is a lie. Therefore, situationally
relevant questions should be asked when assessing a child’s competence to testify, such as:
• If I told your mum that you just yelled at me, would that be the truth or a lie?
• If you told your mum that I hit you, would that be the truth or a lie?
• If you told your teacher that something bad happened to you, but it really didn’t happen – you were
making it up – would you be telling the truth or a lie?
Competent children should be able to consistently provide correct answers to these
multiple-choice questions.
meaning of taking an oath. Children usually are not familiar with the word, oath, but most
recognize the word, promise. Because taking an oath and making a promise are similar concepts, it is
more developmentally appropriate and more productive to ask children if they know what it means
to make a promise. Furthermore, substituting the word, promise, for the word, oath, when swearing in
child witnesses is a more effective approach.
young children may not be able to readily answer the question, “What does it mean to make a
promise?” If this is the case, follow-up questions also should be asked to better assess the child’s
understanding, such as:
• If you promise your mum that you are going to eat your lunch, what should you do? and Why?
• If you promise to tell the truth today, what should you do? and Why?
understanding the consequences of not telling the truth. Children also should be asked
what might happen, both to the child and the person being lied about, if they said something
happened to them and it was not true. Examples of such questions are:
• When you get caught telling a lie, what usually happens to you?
• If you said that your classmate hit you and it was not true – you were making it up – what could happen
to you for lying?
• If you said that your sister hit you and it really didn’t happen, but your dad believed you, what could
happen to your sister?
Only if the child struggles with responding appropriately to questions about promising, should the
issue of competence be raised.

76
immigration and asylum proceedings
Children who come to a country following
their parents in search of work or as
refugees are in a particularly vulnerable
situation. Many have been through
frightening and traumatic experiences,
and may have a profound fear of people
in authority. Therefore, it is of particular
importance to ensure that efforts are made
to create safe spaces for them in which
they can express their views about what
has happened to them, and be involved
in any plans and decisions to be made
concerning their future. There are a range
of circumstances when it will be necessary
for migrant or asylum-seeking children to
be able to express their views in order to
ensure that their rights are realised.108
In immigration proceedings
Identifcation and referral mechanisms for
dealing with separated and unaccompanied
children need to be designed in such a
way that they enable vulnerable children to
express their needs, wishes and concerns,
and their own personal assessments as
to what action is needed to protect their
best interests. Without such information,
immigration offcers may make decisions
affecting, for example, traffcked children,
or those escaping a forced marriage, to
return a child to an abusive or dangerous
environment which may be detrimental
to their wellbeing, or even life threatening.
Procedures therefore need to be tailored
to meet the needs of children and ensure
that they are provided with all relevant
information, in their own language, on:
• entitlements and services available,
including help with communication
• the asylum process and other immigration
procedures
• family-tracing services and the situation in
their country of origin.
To help in this process, and build the
confdence of the child, a guardian or adviser
should be appointed free of charge.

ChiLd witnesses in the us Courts: an iLLustration oFthe
importanCe oF usinG appropriate tooLs to assess CompetenCe
The importance of using appropriate tools to assess competence is exemplifed in a study
undertaken in the United States to determine the competence of 192 children, aged 4 to
7 years, who had allegedly been mistreated, to act as child witnesses.107 The study found that
many prosecutors fail to ask questions that children can understand and accordingly, many cases
get dropped because they cannot demonstrate that children are capable of understanding the
importance of telling the truth.
The usual approach is to ask children if they know what would happen to them if they told a
lie in court. But children are unwilling to identify themselves as liars, even hypothetically. They
insist, instead, that they are not going to lie. Judges interpret this refusal as evidence of failure to
understand the question, whereas it can often be the result of the imbalance of power between
the child and the judge and a fear of even theoretical acknowledgement of the possibility of lying.
The research found that, among the children who exhibited an understanding of the difference
between the truth and a lie, 69% failed to explain the difference adequately when using traditional
approaches adopted by the courts. The researchers developed a child-friendly test that asks children
to identify when story characters are telling the truth and the consequences of the character’s
actions. The child-friendly test demonstrates that children in the same age group are able to
understand the concept of truth and the consequences of telling a lie.

107 K J Saywitz and T Lyon, Sensitively assessing children’s testimonial
competence, harbor-UCLA Research and Education Institute,
Los Angeles, 1999
108 For more information on the rights of asylum-seeking children,
see General Comment No. 6, ‘Treatment of Unaccompanied
and Separated Children outside their Country of Origin’, CRC/
GC/2005/6, 2006
EvERy ChILD’S RIGhT TO BE hEARD
77
chapter fIve • oBLiGations reLatinG to judiCiaL and administrative proCeedinGs
In asylum procedures
All asylum procedures involving children
need to ensure that they are able to provide
an account of their experiences. Without
the opportunity to hear from the child,
it will be impossible to identify her or his
individual needs. Often the child will be the
only source of information. However, as a
result of the circumstances associated with
the asylum claim, children may be reluctant
to talk about what has happened to them
and the problems they have experienced.
In order to help children overcome these
barriers and communicate their experiences
without fear, provision should be made
to inform children, in a manner they can
understand, as to:
• their right to seek and enjoy asylum
• how the process will work and what
stages are involved
• what entitlements and services are
available for them while they go through
the process
• the care arrangements which will be put
in place for them
• family tracing and information on the
situation in the country of origin
• their right to privacy and confdentiality,
which will ensure that they can express
their views without coercion, constraint
or fear.
A guardian and legal representative should
be appointed free of charge to support the
child through the asylum process and to
ensure that any child capable of forming a
view on decisions affecting them is provided
with the necessary information to do so.
In addition, adjudicators and others involved
in procedures to determine the asylum
claims of children should be trained and
skilled to ensure that children have the
opportunity to participate as directly
and fully in this process as their age and
maturity allows and to evaluate accurately
the reliability and signifcance of the views
expressed by children.
78

extraCts From the un hiGh Commissioner For reFuGees (unhCr)
GuideLines on internationaL proteCtion: ChiLd asyLum-seeKers109
8 Even at a young age, a child may still be considered the principal asylum applicant. The parent,
caregiver or other person representing the child will have to assume a greater role in making sure
that all relevant aspects of the child’s claim are presented. however, the right of children to express
their views in all matters affecting them, including to be heard in all judicial and administrative
proceedings, also needs to be taken into account. A child claimant, where accompanied by parents,
members of an extended family or of the community who by law or custom are responsible for the
child, is entitled to appropriate direction and guidance from them in the exercise of his/her rights, in
a manner consistent with the evolving capacities of the child. Where the child is the principal asylum
seeker, his/her age and, by implication, level of maturity, psychological development, and ability to
articulate certain views or opinions will be an important factor in a decision maker’s assessment
65 Due to their young age, dependency and relative immaturity, children should enjoy specifc
procedural and evidentiary safeguards to ensure that fair refugee status determination decisions are
reached with respect to their claims.
68 An independent, qualifed guardian needs to be appointed immediately, free of charge in the case
of unaccompanied or separated children. Children who are the principal applicants in an asylum
procedure are also entitled to a legal representative. Such representatives should be properly trained
and should support the child throughout the procedure.
69 The right of children to express their views and to participate in a meaningful way is also
important in the context of asylum procedures. A child’s own account of his/her experience is often
essential for the identifcation of his/her individual protection requirements and, in many cases,
the child will be the only source of this information. Ensuring that the child has the opportunity
to express these views and needs requires the development and integration of safe and child
appropriate procedures and environments that generate trust at all stages of the asylum process.
It is important that children be provided with all necessary information in a language and manner
they understand about the possible existing options and the consequences arising from them. This
includes information about their right to privacy and confdentiality enabling them to express their
views without coercion, constraint or fear of retribution.
69 Appropriate communication methods need to be selected for the different stages of the
procedure, including the asylum interview, and need to take into account the age, gender, cultural
background and maturity of the child as well as the circumstances of the ﬂight and mode of arrival.
Useful, non-verbal communication methods for children might include playing, drawing, writing,
role-playing, story-telling and singing. Children with disabilities require “whatever mode of
communication they need to facilitate expressing their views”.
70 Children cannot be expected to provide adult-like accounts of their experiences. They may have
diffculty articulating their fear for a range of reasons, including trauma, parental instructions, lack of
education, fear of State authorities or persons in positions of power, use of ready-made testimony
by smugglers, or fear of reprisals. They may be too young or immature to be able to evaluate what
information is important or to interpret what they have witnessed or experienced in a manner
that is easily understandable to an adult. Some children may omit or distort vital information or
be unable to differentiate the imagined from reality. They also may experience diffculty relating to
abstract notions, such as time or distance. Thus, what might constitute a lie in the case of an adult
might not necessarily be a lie in the case of a child. It is, therefore, essential that examiners have the
necessary training and skills to be able to evaluate accurately the reliability and signifcance of the
child’s account. This may require involving experts in interviewing children outside a formal setting
or observing children and communicating with them in an environment where they feel safe, for
example, in a reception centre.

109 UNhCR, Guidelines on Policies and Procedures in Dealing with
Unaccompanied Children Seeking Asylum, Geneva, 1997 (hereafter
“UNHCR, Guidelines on Unaccompanied Children Seeking Asylum”),
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3ae6b3360.html, in
particular Part 8
EvERy ChILD’S RIGhT TO BE hEARD
79
in order to ensure the riGht to Be heard in speCiFiC
proCeedinGs, the FoLLowinG measures are neCessary:
• In divorce and separation – legislation and regulations
must be introduced to ensure that no orders are made
concerning a child capable of forming a view, without fnding
out the views of that child.
• When separating a child from her or his parents – measures
must be taken to ensure that the child has the right to be
heard throughout the process of assessment, separation and
placement, is involved in the drawing up of plans for her or
his future, and has access to representation when required.
• In adoption and kafalah – a child who is capable of forming
a view must give consent to the adoption, and no child
should be adopted against his or her wishes.
• When the child is accused of an offence – the child must be
informed of charges, be properly represented at all stages,
and be able to appeal against any decision. The proceedings
must be child friendly and conducted in privacy to enable
the child to feel confdent in expressing his or her views.
• When the child is a witness to an offence – the child should,
wherever possible, be enabled to give evidence in order to
hold perpetrators to account. To reduce the trauma and stress
in doing so, measures must be put in place to create safe and
accessible court environments including protection for the
child during the hearing, rules governing cross-examination,
avoidance of repeated testimonies, use of video recording and
screens. Effective measures should be introduced to assess the
capacity of the child to give evidence.
• In immigration and asylum proceedings – the child should
have access to interpretation, to an adviser or guardian to
help them through the process, to information about their
rights, and to privacy and confdentiality to enable them to
speak without fear.
ChAPTER FIvE
in summary
Chapter six
implementing article 12 in different settings
UNICEF/NYHQ2009-1844/sUsaN markIsz
Chapter six
implementing article 12 in different settings
in the family
Support and guidance for parents
Parental responsibilities and the law
in alternative care
Legal right to be involved in individual decisions relating to all
aspects of the care system
Legal right to be consulted in the development of care services
Access to information
Independent and safe complaints mechanisms
Independent inspectorate
Independent monitoring body
Consultative mechanisms
in healthcare
Involvement in decision-making
Access to confdential medical counselling
Consent to treatment
Participation in the development of health services
in education
Involvement of children in individual decisions affecting their education
Participatory child-centred learning
Democratic school environments
Participation in education policy
National student organisations
in play, recreation, sport and cultural activities
in the media
in the workplace
in situations of violence
81
“Where, after all, do universal human rights
begin? In small places, close to home – so
close and so small they cannot be seen on
any maps of the world. Yet they are the
world of the individual person … Such are
the places where every man, woman and
child seeks equal justice, equal opportunity,
equal dignity without discrimination. Unless
these rights have meaning there, they have
little meaning anywhere. Without concerned
citizen action to uphold them close to
home, we shall look in vain for progress in
the larger world.” Eleanor Roosevelt110
The right to be heard extends to every
part of children’s lives. While much
impressive work has been undertaken in
recent years to create opportunities for
children to participate in the public arena,
it is important not to forget that equal
investment needs to be made in addressing
the opportunities for children to be heard
in their day-to-day lives – in the family, at
school, in their healthcare, in institutions, in
play and recreation, and in the workplace.
in the FamiLy
The family is the ideal framework for the
frst participatory experiences for children.
It can provide the opportunity for children
to learn to express their views in a safe and
supportive environment where they feel
valued and respected. It offers preparation
for child participation in the wider society.111
During the Day of General Discussion on
‘The Role of the Family in the Promotion
of Children’s Rights’, the Committee
reaffrmed the importance of the family in
creating a participatory environment for
the child.112 Such an approach to parenting
serves to promote individual development,
enhance family relations, support children’s
socialisation and play a preventive role
against all forms of violence in the home
and family. However, the experience of
children in many families throughout the
world is of a very different nature. More
common is an assumption of a hierarchical
relationship where children are expected
to obey, be quiet, accept and acquiesce to
parental authority.
ChAPTER SIx
impLementinG artiCLe 12 in diFFerent settinGs

addressinGthe CuLturaL Context113
In some African countries, Article 12 has been one of the most challenging rights to implement,
largely because local cultures do not view parents as having a responsibility to consult with their
children. A recent study of parents and children in Ghana found four key factors in child-rearing
practices which serve to reinforce the inability of children to express their views on matters of
concern to them: the relationship between dependence and obedience; the perception of childhood
as never-ending, with deference for elders expected even when children grow up and marry; the view
that children are inferior to elders and must never challenge them; and, fnally, the assumption that
parents ‘own’ children and therefore have a right to control them.
however, the study also found that there were opportunities for greater involvement of children in
decision-making. The children indicated that, in practice, they were often able to exchange opinions
with their mothers (although rarely with fathers), who in turn did often consult them, as long as it
was done in the privacy of the home. Where parent–child relationships were stronger, there was far
more potential for improving the opportunities for listening to children, provided it was done in a
manner that respected and acknowledged the importance of cultural values.

110 Eleanor Roosevelt (1958) speaking on the tenth anniversary of
the Universal Declaration of human Rights, to which she was a
major contributor.
111 Committee on the Rights of the Child, Report on the 7th
Session, September/October 1994, CRC/C/34, paras 192 and 193
112 A Twum-Danso, ‘The Construction of Childhood and the
Socialisation of Children in Ghana’ in B Percy-Smith and
N Thomas (eds) A Handbook of Children and Young People’s
Participation, Routledge, London, 2010
113 Day of General Discussion on The Right of the Child to be
heard, September 2006
82
Article 5 of the UNCRC recognises the
rights and responsibilities of parents, or
other legal guardians, to provide appropriate
direction and guidance to their children,
but emphasises that this is to enable the
child to exercise his or her rights, and
requires that the direction and guidance
be undertaken in a manner consistent with
the evolving capacities of children. In other
words, as children acquire capacities, so they
are entitled to take an increasing level of
responsibility for the decisions that affect
them. The Committee stresses that “Parents
… should be encouraged to offer ‘direction
and guidance’ in a child-centred way, through
dialogue and example, in ways that enhance
children’s capacities to exercise their rights
including the right to participation.” 114 Of
course, respecting children’s views does not
mean that children can do or say whatever
they want. The UNCRC does not challenge
the right of parents to provide direction and
guidance to children but it does require that
they listen to them, take account of their
views and recognise children’s right to take
responsibility for decisions and the exercise
of their own rights in accordance with their
evolving capacities.
support and guidance for parents
The UNCRC requires governments to
“render appropriate assistance to parents
and legal guardians in the performance of
their child-rearing responsibilities and […]
ensure the development of institutions, facilities
and services for the care of children”.115
A key aspect of such assistance would
involve education and counselling that
offers support to parents and other family
members, to encourage positive and
sensitive relationships with young children
and to enhance understanding of children’s
rights and best interests. Such programmes
should build on existing positive behaviours

an assessment oF ChiLdren’s partiCipation in the FamiLy in
south aFriCa116
In South Africa a systematic, informative assessment of children’s participation in the family was
undertaken over a fve-month period in 2006. The assessment was undertaken by the Community
Agency for Social Enquiry (CASE). Some key fndings from the study reveal that the level of
interaction between children and caregivers is dependent on the context or issues at hand. Across
the research sites, children tended to engage in discussion with their female caregivers more easily
than with their male caregivers. Child participation increased with age and was highest in decisions
concerning education. Generally boys had more inﬂuence in decision-making than girls. In decisions
concerning economic and household activities there appeared to be room for negotiations, for
example, children were expected to do chores, but might negotiate which chores they would do
– though such chores tend to be linked to clearly defned gender roles. Social decisions were the
most likely to tend toward being an adult’s decision after consultation with the child. There was also
a clear gender difference in the way boys and girls were able to participate in social decisions, with
boys having more freedom and choice than girls.
Based on the fndings from the assessment, key recommendations were outlined to promote child
participation in the family context in South Africa. These included efforts to address misconceptions
about children’s rights and child participation practice; undertaking interventions at a number of
levels including the school, community and possibly the legislative process; and drawing on existing
cultural norms that can be viewed as supporting participation (such as children taking on roles of
responsibility in the household) when addressing this issue.

114 General Comment No. 7, ‘Implementing Child Rights in Early
Childhood’, CRC/C/GC/7, 2005
115 UNCRC, Article 18 (2)
116 From ‘Cultivating Children’s Participation’, abridged version of
Participation is a virtue that must be cultivated, Save the Children
Sweden, 2008
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and attitudes, and disseminate information
on the rights enshrined in the Convention.
International research in developed
and developing countries has provided
incontrovertible evidence that early
interventions in support of healthy physical,
mental and social development have longlasting positive effects on children’s all-round
development, on their performance in
school, on their relationship with others,
and on their productivity well into adult
life. Not only are these early interventions
long lasting, they are much less costly than
repairing problems that develop as a result
of delayed or damaged development.117
However, often parents themselves feel
disempowered, and this has an impact
on how they understand and respond to
children’s right to be heard. Programmes
to support parents in creating spaces
to listen to their children need to take
account of parents’ own experiences and
the imbalances of power between men and
women in the family.
Such programmes need to involve both
fathers and mothers, and address:
• promoting respectful relationships
between parents and children – often
a challenge as there are longstanding
assumptions in most cultures that children
should respect their parents, but it is far
less common to see recognition of the
importance of respecting children
• involving children in decision-making
• the implications of giving due weight
to the views of every family member,
including children
• understanding, promoting and respecting
children’s evolving capacities
• dealing with conﬂicting views within the
family
• the principle that girls and boys have equal
right to express views.

the Better parentinG projeCt, jordan118
The project was developed in Jordan to address the need of parents of very young children for basic
information and support in their tasks of child-rearing, specifcally in the areas of health, nutrition and
social-emotional development. A national survey conducted by UNICEF on the knowledge, attitudes
and practices of Jordanian parents in relation to early childhood care indicated that “the majority of
young parents lack the necessary information and skills for providing a stimulating environment at the home,
especially in areas related to social and emotional development”.
The impact of the programme was to be measured by the following indicators:
• existence of a qualifed core team of trainers within all participating partners
• number of outreach facilities implementing the better parenting strategies and methods
• number of parents and other caregivers aware of and practising better parenting skills.
The evaluation found that the programme resulted in:
• growing demand – not only from parents who had not had access to the programme wanting to
be involved, but those who had been involved wanting further and more advanced access
• strong interest for additional parenting education for fathers
• wide acceptance in most communities, where it was seen as being of beneft
• minimal resistance to either approach or content, particularly when facilitators showed sensitivity
to cultural/religious traditions related to gender roles and male–female participation, or to other
traditional child-rearing practices, in structuring the formats of delivery and discussion.

117 D Keating and C hertzman, Developmental Health and the Wealth
of Nations, Guilford Press, Newyork, 1999, Chapter 2; M Eyoung,
Early Child Development: Investing in the Future, World Bank, 1999,
pp. 3–13
118 Dr S Al hasan, 2009 Jordan: Evaluation Report of the Better
Parenting Project, Executive summary, 2009. Available online
at: http://www.unicef.org/evaldatabase/index_54190.html
and J Brown, Evaluation Report of the National Multi-Sectoral
Collaboration on Behalf of Young Children, UNICEF, Jordan, 2009
84

addressinG parentaL ConCerns aBout invoLvinG ChiLdren
in deCisions
• Children should not be burdened by unnecessary responsibility or information
No child should be burdened with more information than they can cope with or understand. But
children do like to know what is happening and why. If events that affect them (such as parental
conﬂict or the death of someone close) are not talked about, children may fll in the gaps in their
knowledge with imaginings more worrying or frightening than the reality. Or they may blame
themselves for events which they are not responsible for. Parents need to work out how much
children need to know and how to explain it in ways they can understand.young children often
need to be shown things as well as being told about them.
• It takes more time
It is much easier, in the short term, to decide things for children. But without their involvement,
parents might get things wrong. And they will deny children the chance to think things through for
themselves, weigh up pros and cons, and begin to take responsibility for their actions.
• Children might make a mistake
They might choose an option that makes them unhappy or puts them in danger. Parents need
to remember that they still have parental responsibility to protect their child from harm and to
promote their wellbeing, so if they can see that something will defnitely be bad for their child, they
can say “no”. But they can protect the child from their own mistakes in a way that involves the
child. Parents can help children out if they fnd they are unhappy with a decision they have made,
or change their mind. Part of learning is about making mistakes and fnding out how to recover
from them, and discovering what they have taught us.
• Children may make decisions/express opinions that challenge existing norms and practice
Children will often challenge their parents’ views, values and beliefs as well as those of the wider
society, as a part of growing up and testing out their own ideas and thoughts. Creating a space
where children can explore their opinions with parents provides the opportunity to help children
think through those opinions safely and with parental support and guidance. Denying that space
can be counter-productive: it can serve to strengthen children’s desire to hold challenging views,
and means that children are more likely to test them out secretly and without the knowledge and
guidance of parents.
• Children might make a ‘wasteful’ decision
Children often make choices that their parents feel are unwise or foolish – such as choosing a toy
that falls apart or that they hardly ever play with. But parents can help children learn from their
mistakes in order to avoid repeating them, and guide children towards wise choices.
• They might want something they cannot have
Children might want their parents to stay together rather than separate, or to stay put when their
parents have to move because of work. Even if children cannot have what they want, they do like
to be consulted and to be told what decision has been made and why. There is a great deal of
research evidence which shows that children feel “We still felt better for being listened to.”
• If they have their say, they’ll expect to have their way
Parents will need to be clear about which decisions they are prepared to negotiate, and which they
are not. They will continue to make some decisions for children – in their best interests. They will
let children make some decisions for themselves. And there will be some decisions that parents
will negotiate with their children, reaching a compromise that takes into account all of their
concerns. At any rate, it is important that parents let the child know the reasons why they came to
a particular decision.

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parental responsibilities and the law
It is important to consider reinforcing any
educational support by the introduction,
in relevant legislation, of a parental or
other caregivers’ responsibility to listen
to children and give due weight to their
views, in accordance with age and maturity,
when making decisions that affect them.
By introducing such provisions in law, the
aim is not to prosecute parents who fail to
involve children in decisions: rather it would
be a means of establishing and endorsing a
basic principle to promote a cultural change
towards greater respect for children’s
right to be heard. Any legal provisions on
parental responsibilities should be backed
up with information, support and guidance
for parents. In those countries where
such legislation has been introduced, the
outcome has not been increased litigation,
but a greater understanding of the need for
more participatory relationships between
parents and children.
in aLternative Care
“Sometimes social services put you in a
school that you may not want to go to, or
wherever you’re living at the moment you
may not like it, and you want to move to
somewhere else. And then you’re not going
to get a say in where you move to, so it
would be best if you could actually do that.”
Interview with a group of children in public care119
Children who are placed away from home
in alternative care need specifc measures in
place to ensure that their voices are heard
and taken seriously. The informal day-today processes which take place in famiIies,
and through which views can be expressed

exampLes oF LeGisLation on parents’ responsiBiLity to
Listen to ChiLdren
south african Children’s act 2005, section 31
Before a person holding parental responsibilities and rights in respect of a child takes any decision
contemplated in paragraph (b) involving the child, that person must give due consideration to any
views and wishes expressed by the child, bearing in mind the child’s age, maturity and stage of
development.
swedish Code of parenthood and Guardianship concerning the exercise of custody,
Chap. 6, sect. 11
It is the right and duty of the custodian to decide questions relating to the child’s personal affairs. In
doing so, the custodian shall take progressively greater account of the child’s viewpoints and wishes,
parallel to the child’s increasing age and development.
Children act (scotland)1995, section 6:views of children
(1) A person shall, in reaching any major decision which involves –
(a) his fulflling a parental responsibility or the responsibility mentioned in section 5(1) of
this Act; or
(b) his exercising a parental right or giving consent by virtue of that section,
have regard so far as practicable to the views (if he wishes to express them) of the child
concerned, taking account of the child’s age and maturity, and to those of any other person who
has parental responsibilities or parental rights in relation to the child (and wishes to express
those views); and without prejudice to the generality of this subsection a child twelve years of
age or more shall be presumed to be of suffcient age and maturity to form a view.

119 C Davey, T Burke and C Shaw, Children’s Participation in Decision-Making:
A children’s views report, National Participation Forum, 2010
86
and discussed, are not so easily available
for children living in institutions or foster
care. As one of a large number of children
in an institution, it is all too common for a
child’s concerns to be disregarded and for
decisions to be made without any regard
for their wishes. Furthermore, children in
care are particularly vulnerable when their
views are not listened to or taken seriously.
Although alternative care environments
are established to provide care, guidance,
support and protection to children, the
boys and girls who live in them may be at
heightened risk of violence compared with
children living at home with their parents.120
This is especially true for children with
disabilities.
Governments, with responsibilities for
providing substitute care for children unable
to be looked after by their families, are
required to ensure that all actions they
take are in the best interests of those
children. It is not possible to represent the
best interests of children without taking
account of their experiences, concerns
and preferences. Mechanisms must to
be introduced to ensure that children in
all forms of alternative care, including in
institutions, are able to express their views
and have them given due weight in matters
affecting their daily lives.121
Measures to ensure the right of the child
to be heard in alternative care include the
following:
Legal right to be involved in individual
decisions relating to all aspects of the
care system
Children must be provided with guarantees
that their voices will be heard. This should
have a basis in law, rather than just in
guidance or institutional procedure manuals.
The right to be heard and taken seriously
needs to include children in foster care,
children’s homes, care and penal institutions,
and health facilities. It should also apply to

extraCt From the un GuideLines For the aLternative
Care oF ChiLdren122
6 All decisions, initiatives and approaches falling within the scope of the present Guidelines should
be made on a case-by-case basis, with a view notably to ensuring the child’s safety and security, and
must be grounded in the interests and rights of the child concerned, in conformity with the principle
of non-discrimination and taking due account of the gender perspective. They should respect fully
the child’s right to be consulted and to have his/her views duly taken into account in accordance
with his/her evolving capacities, and on the basis of his/her access to all necessary information. Every
effort should be made to enable such consultation and information provision to be carried out in the
child’s preferred language.
6bis In applying the present Guidelines, determination of the best interests of the child shall be
designed to identify courses of action for children deprived of parental care, or at risk of being so,
that are best suited to satisfying their needs and rights, taking into account the full and personal
development of their rights in their family, social and cultural environment and their status as
subjects of rights, both at the time of the determination and in the longer term. The determination
process should take account of, inter alia, the right of the child to be heard and to have his/her views
taken into account in accordance with his/her age and maturity.

120 S Pinheiro, UN Study on Violence against Children, United Nations,
Newyork, 2006
121 Committee on the Rights of the Child, Report on the 40th
Session, September 2005, CRC/C/153, paras 663 and 664
122 Guidelines for the Alternative Care of Children: A UN Framework, SOS
Children’svillages International/ISS, Geneva, 2009
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children who are in temporary care as well
as those more permanently away from
home. The scope of the right to be heard
should extend to all aspects of their care
including:
• when and where they are placed
• who they have contact with, and the
frequency and nature of that contact
• plans being made concerning their future
• review processes
• issues arising on a day-to-day basis
concerning their care.
The Committee recommends that
mechanisms such as family group
conferences are an effective model for
ensuring that children are heard in
decision-making processes.123
Legal right to be consulted in the
development of care services
Consultative processes need to be
developed for children’s involvement in
development of legislation and policy, as well
as feedback mechanisms on implementation
of laws, policy and practice relating to care
services. Children who have experience of
being looked after within care services have
a unique body of expertise to contribute to
the development of improved provision for
other children. In some countries, children
and young people who have experienced
being in care have established their own
organisations to provide information,
support and advocacy to other children
and young people. In other countries,
children have taken on an inspection role

ListeninGto the views oF ChiLdren in Care:
an exampLe From the uK124
extract from Children’s homes, national minimum standards
Outcome:
• children know that their views, wishes and feelings are taken into account in all aspects of
their care; are helped to understand why it may not be possible to act upon their wishes in all
circumstances; and know how to obtain support and make a complaint.
• the views of others with an important relationship to the child are gathered and taken into
account.
1.1. Children’s views, wishes and feelings are acted upon, in the day to day running of the home and
important decisions or changes in the child’s life, unless this is contrary to their interests.
1.2. Children understand how their views have been taken into account, and where signifcant wishes
or concerns are not acted upon, they are helped to understand why.
1.3. All children communicate their views on all aspects of their care and support.
1.4. The views of the child, the child’s family, social worker and Independent Reviewing Offcer (IRO)
are sought regularly on the child’s care, (unless in individual cases this is not appropriate).
1.5. Children have access to independent advice and support from adults who they can contact
directly and in private about problems or concerns, which is appropriate to their age and
understanding. Children know their rights to advocacy and how to access an advocate, and how to
contact the Children’s Rights Director.
1.6. Children can take up issues in the most appropriate way with support and without fear that
this will result in any adverse consequences. Children receive prompt feedback on any concerns or
complaints raised and are kept informed of progress.
1.7. The views, wishes and feelings of children and those signifcant to them are taken into account in
monitoring staff and in developing the home.

123 Committee on the Rights of the Child, Report on the 40th
Session, September 2005, CRC/C/153, paras 663 and 664
124 Children’s Homes, National Minimum Standards, Department for
Education, London, 2011
88
in institutions and provided feedback on
the quality of services and changes needed
to improve them. Governments should
consider supporting the development of
such initiatives and engaging with children
as a source of expertise when formulating
and evaluating legislation, policies and
programmes.
access to information
In order to be able to express informed
views, children must be provided with
information about any proposed placement,
care and/or treatment plan, the options
available and the implications of any
proposed action. Information must be
provided in a form that is consistent with the
child’s evolving capacities, and she or he must
be given time to consider the information
and ask questions, before being expected
to respond to any proposed decisions.
independent and safe complaints
mechanisms
It is imperative that children can access
independent and safe complaints
mechanisms without fear of punishment
or retribution. Information about the
procedures and how to use them should
be readily accessible to all children in care.
They need to know who they can make
a complaint to. There needs to be a range
of options, as there may be occasions
when a nominated person is the subject
of the complaint. They should also be
entitled to have access to an advocate
or representative to help them make
complaints, and to advise and support
them through this process. Children and
their representatives should have access to
an appeals process if they are not satisfed
with the response to their complaint. (See
pages 59–61 for an example of a complaints
procedure.)
independent inspectorate
The establishment of a well-trained and
independent inspectorate is necessary, to
monitor compliance with the rules and
regulations governing the provision of
care, protection or treatment of children
in accordance with the obligations under
Article 3. The inspectorate should be
mandated to have unimpeded access to
residential facilities, including those for
children in conﬂict with the law, in order
to hear the views and concerns of children
directly, and to monitor the extent to which
their views are listened to and given due
weight by the institution itself. Children
should be entitled to be heard in private
with assurances of confdentiality, consistent
with their best interests.
independent monitoring body
An independent monitoring body, such as a
children’s ombudsperson or commissioner,
is needed, with powers to undertake
investigations, and make unannounced
visits to residential facilities and institutions
(including those for children in conﬂict with
the law) to listen to children in private, and
recommend specifc actions to respond to
these views.
Consultative mechanisms
Effective consultative mechanisms need to
be introduced, for example, a representative
council of the children, both girls and boys,
in the residential care facility, with the
mandate to participate in the development
and implementation of the policy and any
rules of the institution. The Committee
also recommends that regular reviews of
children’s views be taken into consideration
as well as reviews of their impact on
policy-making and court decisions and on
programme implementation.125
125 Committee on the Rights of the Child, Report on the 40th Session, September 2005, CRC/C/153, paras 663 and 664
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GuideLines on ListeninGto ChiLdren in inspeCtion
and monitorinG126
The following guidelines are taken from the Guidelines on Alternative Care of Children: A UN Framework,
which were adopted by the UN General Assembly in November 2009 and supported by the
Committee on the Rights of the Child (the text is in bold where it specifcally addresses children’s
right to be heard):
inspection and monitoring
• agencies, facilities and professionals involved in care provision should be accountable to a specifc
public authority, which should ensure, inter alia, frequent inspections comprising both scheduled
and unannounced visits, involving discussion with and observation of the staff and the
children.
• to the extent possible and appropriate, inspection functions should include a component of
training and capacity-building for care providers.
• States should be encouraged to ensure that an independent monitoring mechanism is in place,
with due consideration for the Principles relating to the Status of National Institutions for the
Promotion and Protection of human Rights (Paris Principles). The monitoring mechanism
should be easily accessible to children, parents and those responsible for children without
parental care. The functions of the monitoring mechanism should include:
– Consulting in conditions of privacy with children in all forms of alternative care, visiting the care
settings in which they live and undertaking investigations into any alleged situation of violation of
children’s rights in those settings, on complaint or on its own initiative.

126 UN General Assembly, Guidelines for the Alternative Care of Children:
resolution/adopted by the General Assembly, 24 February 2010, A/RES/64/142.

ChiLdren’s aCt 2005, south aFriCa
section 28: management of child and youth care centres
• (1) each child and youth care centre must have a management board consisting of no fewer than
six and no more than nine members.
• (6) the management board must create a children’s forum as part of the management board
to ensure the participation of resident children in the operation of the centre, taking into
consideration the age, maturity and stage of development of the children.

proteCtinG ChiLdren LivinG in institutions127
It is particularly important for all institutions where children are living to implement the principle of
Article 12 of the UNCRC. The natural way in which family members talk and listen to each other,
and particularly parents listen to their children, cannot easily be replicated in more formal living
institutions. Deliberate steps must be taken to ensure that the staff hear and take proper account of
the children’s views and respect their civil rights.
working to guarantee the participation of every child
It is important that people who work with children:
1. Listen to the child and the messages that they send about the way in which they assimilate what
reaches them, particularly, because they no longer live with their parents.
2. Ask the child to comment, which helps them to evaluate if they have understood what they have
said.
3. Give the child the chance to ask questions.
4. Leave them the possibility of expressing their feelings, or create occasions for this purpose.
5. Show the child positive reinforcement.
6. Communicate with the child in simple language that is clear and comprehensible for them,
depending upon their age and level of maturity.
7. Use for this purpose tools such as drawings, photographs, the child’s personal objects, toys
including little dolls (or simple pieces of wood that stand for the key people in the child’s life:
mother, father, brother, sister, grandparents, him or herself, etc).
The layout and the decoration of the rooms should also be done with the children’s participation, if
that’s possible, based on a family model, in a warm way that encourages living together. Every child
needs to have a certain number of objects around them and space, however small it may be (a shelf,
cupboard or part of a cupboard) for their personal use.

127 Taken from A Global Policy for Children and the Family, Fact Sheet No. 16, International Social Service, June 2006
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transForminG Care in orphanaGes:
an exampLe From ZimBaBwe128
In the house for Boys, an orphanage in Zimbabwe, the children were asked for their views on their
experiences for the frst time. The issues they raised included:
• people are not united, we should be united so that we can live as a happy family.
• I want to speak for myself. We must listen to each other’s ideas.
• could we please have medical attention?
• the food is not enough.after school we are hungry, but we get four slices of bread. can you
change this and give us something better? During break [at school] our friends run away from us
scared that we will beg for their food.
• Staff do not care about us and are not thinking about our future.
• not enough love is shown. We need to be given love because some of us have never experienced
life with a mother and father.
• We need books to study because the schools we go to do not provide us with books.
• We need a staff member in the dining room at meal times.
• We also need to talk about how we got here, our background.
• We must encourage each other not to do wrong
• We have little exposure to the outside world. We need to socialise with people outside the home.
• there is nothing we can do about our problems because the staff do not listen to us and we are
also scared to talk about things.
This led to the following recommendations for the orphanage:
• policies and regulations, which are guided by the principle: ‘in the best interest of the boys’
• a code of ethical practices regarding the care they provided for the boys
• a clear recording and reporting system for creating accountability
• the basic needs (food, shelter, healthcare and fair pay for work) of the staff to be addressed
• respect for staff needs for time off to avoid burnout, and for sick and holiday pay
• help for the boys to maintain and fnd positive kinship ties
• workshops for staff on ways to prepare the boys for life beyond the orphanage
• encouragement of youth participation in the decision-making of the orphanage by allowing the
boys to have representation in Board meetings
• encouragement of more community partnership through youth-led community projects
• a contract between child and family Social Services and the house for Boys, under which the
orphanage would accept boys from social services only on condition that the admitting social
workers or probation offcers agreed to visit the boy at least once every three months; this would
establish responsibility for the maintenance and protection of the rights of these boys
• creation of external links with other orphanages in Zimbabwe to improve the standard of care for
children in care
• major repairs to reduce risk from broken windows, exposed electrical wires and rusty nails
• a strategy to address the orphanage’s annual budget, which is insuffcient to provide adequate food.

128 Adapted from: D Devi, Transforming Orphanage Care: A Case Example in Zimbabwe, human Sciences Press, Inc., 2004
92
in heaLthCare
Article 12 has signifcant implications for
the way in which healthcare treatment and
health services are provided. In respect of
children’s access to healthcare and individual
treatment, there are three distinct, but linked
issues, which need consideration: the child’s
involvement in decision-making, access to
confdential medical counselling, and consent
to treatment.
involvement in decision-making
Children, including young children, should
always be included in discussions and
decisions concerning their own healthcare,
and the way children are involved must be
consistent with their level of understanding.
Too often, medical staff talk with the parent
about the child’s condition, what treatment
is needed and why, how it will be provided
and when, and what will be the impact or
consequences, while excluding the child
from that conversation. Most legislative
frameworks give parents the right to make
decisions relating to healthcare on behalf
of their children, and accordingly, it is not
deemed necessary to include the child in
the dialogue. Furthermore, many cultures
regard children as lacking in suffcient
competence or status to recognise the
importance of including them in such
processes. However, not only does the State
have an obligation to ensure that children
have the opportunity to participate actively
in planning and programming for their own
health and development, but doing so will
lead to much better health outcomes.129
Promoting active participation in their
own healthcare produces many positive
outcomes for children. For example:
• It makes children feel more respected.The
vulnerability associated with being ill, in
pain and dependent on others is lessened
if children feel that they are respected and
listened to, and that their views will be
valued and taken seriously.
• It relieves anxieties and helps them
cope better with treatment. If they have
information about their condition, they are
better able to understand and cope with
what is happening to their bodies and why
things are happening the way they are.
• It gives them confdence. If they are
involved in the process of treatment,
they will not have fears that actions will
be taken without their knowledge or
understanding.
• It encourages cooperation. If children lack
information, they are likely to be more
frightened and therefore less willing or
able to cooperate in treatment. In turn,
interventions will be more painful and
distressing.

very younG ChiLdren taKinG deCisions that aFFeCt
their heaLth130
Many child patients have long-term conditions which require repeated healthcare treatments, so
they make countless chains of informal decisions, based on their former experiences and growing
understanding. Children with serious conditions, such as diabetes, learn to take responsibility very
early. For example, three-year-old Maisie was able to warn her mother when she was feeling shaky
from low blood sugar. Ruby at four years of age could be trusted not to eat chocolates when her
friend did and no adults were present, and by the age of fve she was able to test her own blood
sugar and decide how much cake she could eat.

129 CRC/GC/2003/4, para. 39(d) 130 P Alderson, K Sutcliffe and K Curtis, Children’s Consent to Medical
Treatment, hastings Centre report, 36(6): 25–34, 2006
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• It avoids unnecessary anxiety.When
information is withheld, children may
worry unnecessarily about what is going
to happen to them. Often they will
imagine something far worse than the
actual reality. If they have information,
they can prepare appropriately for what
is happening and receive necessary
support, counselling and/or comfort.
• It leads to better understanding of their
own healthcare needs.
• It encourages them to take more
responsibility for their own health.
131 CRED-PRO (Child Rights Education for Professionals) health
curriculum, developed in collaboration with the Royal College
of Paediatrics and Child health and the American Academy of
Pediatrics, http://www.aap.org/commpeds/international/equity.
html

praCtiCaL strateGies For ListeninGto ChiLdren
in heaLthCare131
• Make available general information targeted at different age groups and abilities – for example,
what happens when a child goes into hospital; information about certain conditions; what rights
children have as patients; how to make a complaint if something goes wrong; information about
getting advice on sexual and reproductive health; drug addiction; and where to go if children are
being sexually abused.
• Make sure that time is given to explain fully to children about their condition.this includes
discussions as to what is happening to them, what treatments are proposed, what options are
available, implications of all the options, side effects of treatments, and the likelihood of pain and
discomfort.
• Make sure that information and explanations are given in ways that are consistent with the child’s
understanding. It should preferably be provided by someone whom the child knows and trusts.
Parents should be as fully involved as possible.
• avoid talking over the child’s head: children get distressed when doctors talk directly to their
parents without involving them.
• Give children the opportunity to ask questions and explore their concerns and deal with them
honestly and fully.
• Make clear to the child that his or her concerns will be taken seriously when decisions are being
made; for example, allowing a parent to go with them as far as the operating theatre, letting them
keep a favourite comfort toy with them, arranging for parents to stay with the child overnight.
• Give children time to consider what they want. for example, if a child is frightened of injections,
work with them to explore what might be done to alleviate his or her fear.
• consider deferring a medical intervention if the child is deeply concerned about it, and there is a
potential for delay.
• always explain fully to the child, if it is decided to make a decision against the child’s wishes,
why that decision has been made and how all efforts will be made to take account of their fears
or concerns.
• Develop policies on confdentiality. Make sure that all relevant staff, as well as children and young
people, are aware of them.
• Develop policies on consent to treatment. Make sure that all relevant staff and children and young
people are aware of them.
• provide training for all staff on the Un convention on the rights of the child and its implications
for practice.
• Develop a charter of rights for children which is prominently displayed in all in- and out-patient
facilities.

94
access to confdential medical
counselling
Children need access to confdential medical
counselling and advice. Such services should
to be made available to children of all ages
and without them having to get parental
consent. It is important to stress that the
right to counselling and advice is distinct
from the right to give medical consent
and should not be subject to any age limit.
The right to seek help without involving
parents is essential in order for children’s
safety or wellbeing to be protected and
promoted. Children may need such access,
for example, where they are experiencing
violence or abuse at home. Evidence
indicates that children facing abuse are far
less likely to seek help if they do not believe
that any advice or counselling services
are confdential. Similarly, they may need
confdential access in order to seek advice
and information concerning reproductive
health education or services, or where
there are conﬂicts between parents and

invoLvinG ChiLdren in their own heaLthCare132
Research done in the Republic of Ireland, for the Offce of the Minister for Children, came to the
conclusion that best practice regarding communication with children can be summarised as follows:
• the child must be involved in treatment decisions as far as possible, bearing in mind her or his
capacity to understand and willingness to be involved.
• the patient’s parents or carers must be involved in treatment decisions.
• the views of children must be sought and taken into account.
• the relationship between health professional and child should be based on truthfulness, clarity
and awareness of the child’s age and maturity.
• children must be listened to and their questions responded to, clearly and truthfully.
• communication with children must be an ongoing process.
• training in communication skills with children is an essential component of appropriate
professional education.
The research looked at positive initiatives shown by health professionals, and summarised them
as follows:
• addressing children directly during the consultation process (eg, by asking them personally about
their ailment or condition). This is important regardless of the child’s age, although the level of
complexity, amount of information imparted and the involvement of children in any decision
making process should be appropriate to the child’s age and maturity. Although it will depend
on the setting, efforts to communicate directly with children should not exclude parents and
vice versa
• adopting an age-appropriate approach to treating children, which takes into account their
development and capacity to understand
• chatting with the child to make him or her feel relaxed, while also respecting personal boundaries
• preparing children adequately for what is about to happen in a treatment or procedure, and giving
them the opportunity to ask questions and to prepare themselves
• empathising with children, being light-hearted and good-humoured where appropriate
• using age-appropriate language and props to explain things to children, including their condition,
the prescribed treatment or the procedure about to be undertaken
• giving children choices as to how they want to proceed
• being honest with children in order to build a relationship of trust
• creating an environment in which children are encouraged to ask questions.

132 http://www.omc.gov.ie/documents/research/The_Childs_Right_to_be_heard_in_the_healthcare_Setting.pdf)
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the child over access to health services. The
Committee recommends that legislation or
regulations be introduced to ensure that the
entitlement to help is properly recognised
and that medical professionals are clear
about the right of children to such services
and their obligations to provide them.133
Governments should consider reviewing
any legislation that places an obligation on
professionals to report to parents if children
seek independent advice or help.
In some circumstances, children will disclose
information that indicates that they are at
serious risk of harm – for example, they
are being sexually abused – but they do
not wish this information to be passed
on to anyone else, or acted on. In these
circumstances, it will be necessary to
consider how to balance their right to
confdentiality with their right to protection.
The box below offers some guidelines on
how to address such situations.
133 General Comment No. 4, ‘Adolescent health and Development
in the Context of the CRC on the Rights of the Child’
134 Royal College of Paediatrics and Child health, ‘Responsibilities
of Doctors in Child Protection Cases with regard to
Confdentiality’, London, February 2004

GuideLines For BaLanCinGthe riGht to ConFidentiaLity
with proteCtion134
1. The doctor’s primary duty is to act in the child’s best interest. If there is conﬂict between
doctor and parents or parents and child, then the child’s needs are paramount.
2. Where there are reasonable grounds to believe a child is at risk of signifcant harm, the facts
should be reported to the relevant authorities.
3. Consent to disclosure should normally be sought from a competent child and carer, unless
doing so would place the child or a sibling at greater risk or hinder enquiries by provoking
interference with verbal evidence.
4. you should disclose information about a non-competent child if you can justify doing so as
essential to their medical interest.
5. you should always disclose information without consent where failure to do so may place a
child at risk of death or serious harm or where the information would help prevent, detect or
prosecute a serious crime.
6. Where you are uncertain whether the above applies but an apparently competent child or a
parent refuses permission for disclosure, and where a child is in danger, you are obliged to act.
This is also the case where the child’s refusal results from duress or fear.
7. When deciding how much information to disclose, the key is to ask yourself how providing the
information would assist further inquiries and failing to provide it would hinder investigations.
8. you should document thoroughly all decisions and the reasoning behind them, explicitly
separating facts from speculation.
9. Doctors providing sexual health services must balance child protection issues against the young
person’s right of confdentiality and need for a sexual health service.young people may decide
not use a service they perceive as not confdential and they may refrain from disclosing abuse
or exploitation.
10. Children’s need for protection does not diminish the importance of gaining their agreement
to sharing information when practicable, and time should be allowed for this where the risk is
not immediate.

96
Consent to treatment
The provisions of Article 12 need to be
understood in conjunction with Article
5, which states that parents or guardians
must provide appropriate direction and
guidance to children in the exercise of
their rights, in line with their evolving
capacities. Encouragement should be given
to promoting an approach whereby, as soon
as the child can demonstrate the capacity
to take responsibility for a decision her or
himself, she or he should be entitled to do
so. As children mature they want, and should
be allowed increasingly, to make decisions
for themselves about their treatment, while
continuing to get support from health
professionals and their parents. Factors
such as age, level of maturity, and previous
experience of treatment play an important
role in enhancing the ability of children
to consent to their own treatment.135
Governments need to introduce
mechanisms that ensure that children who
have suffcient maturity are able to give or
withhold consent to treatment. There are a
number of approaches that can be taken to
implement this right:
• Some countries have introduced a fxed
age at which the right to consent
automatically transfers to the child.
This approach ensures that, at a minimum,
children of that age and above have an
automatic entitlement to give consent
without the requirement for any individual
professional assessment of capacity.
• Another model is to introduce an
age threshold at which a child is
entitled to give consent if he or
she can demonstrate capacity. For
example, in South Africa, where many
children are orphaned and caring for
young siblings on their own, the Children’s
Act 2007 provides an age threshold of 12
when children can give consent to medical
treatment, surgical operations, access to
contraception, HIV testing and disclosure
of results. However, the child’s maturity
and ability to understand the risks and
benefts of any treatment or testing must
also be assessed before the child can
consent on their own.
• Some countries combine a system where
there is a fxed age limit but if the
child can demonstrate capacity
below that age, she or he can give
consent. For example, in the UK and New
Zealand, 16 is the age when all children
can give consent, but a child of any age
who can demonstrate competence can
give consent.
• Some countries adopt an approach
that gives the parents a gradually
decreasing role as the child’s
capacity evolves. In the Netherlands,
for example, parents make the decision
on behalf of all children under 12 years.
Between the ages of 12 and16 years, the
consent of both parents and the child is
needed, but if the parent refuses consent,
the doctor can carry out the treatment
if the child insists. Once the child reaches
the age of 16, only his or her consent
is needed.
• A fnal alternative is to have no
fxed threshold. For example, in
British Columbia, Canada, there is no
presumption as to the age at which
children can demonstrate capacity. Any
child who is competent can give consent
to treatment.
Overall, the ability of children to consent
to treatment is related to the provision of
adequate and comprehensible information.
There is a clear responsibility on the part
of health professionals to ensure that
appropriate information, and the time to
absorb and assess it, is provided.
135 See, for example, P Alderson, ‘Consent to surgery for deaf
children: making informed decisions’ in L Komesaroff (ed.)
Surgical consent: bioethics and cochlear implantation, Gallaudet
University Press, Washington, DC, 2007
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LeGisLation on Consent to treatment
relevant sections in the Children’s act 2005, south africa
Section 129
(2) A child may consent to his or her own medical treatment or to the medical treatment of his or
her child if –
(a) the child is over the age of 12 years; and
(b) the child is of suffcient maturity and has the mental capacity to understand the benefts, risks,
social and other implications of the treatment.
(3) A child may consent to the performance of a surgical operation on him or her or his or her
child if –
(a) the child is over the age of 12 years; and
(b) the child is of suffcient maturity and has the mental capacity to understand the benefts, risks,
social and other implications of the surgical operation; and
(c) the child is duly assisted by his or her parent or guardian.
Section 130
(2) Consent for an hIv test on a child may be given by –
(a) the child, if the child is –
(i) 12 years of age or older; or
(ii) under the age of 12 years and is of suffcient maturity to understand the benefts, risks
and social implications of such a test.
Section 133
(2) Consent to disclose the fact that a child is hIv-positive may be given by –
(a) the child, if the child is –
(i) 12 years of age or older; or
(ii) under the age of 12 years and is of suffcient maturity to understand the benefts, risks
and social implications of such a disclosure.
Section 134
(1) No person may refuse –
(a) to sell condoms to a child over the age of 12 years; or
(b) to provide a child over the age of 12 years with condoms on request where such condoms
are provided or distributed free of charge.
(2) Contraceptives other than condoms may be provided to a child on request by the child and
without the consent of the parent or caregiver of the child if –
(a) the child is at least 12 years of age;
(b) proper medical advice is given to the child; and
(c) a medical examination is carried out on the child to determine whether there are any
medical reasons why a specifc contraceptive should not be provided to the child.
(3) A child who obtains condoms, contraceptives or contraceptive advice in terms of this Act is
entitled to confdentiality in this respect, subject to section 105.

98
participation in the development of
health services
Children also need to be invited to
contribute their views and experiences to
the planning and programming of services
for their health and development. Their
views should be sought on all aspects of
health provision, including what services
are needed, how and where they are
best provided, discriminatory barriers to
accessing services, quality and attitudes of
health professionals, and how to promote
children’s capacities to take increasing levels
of responsibility for their own health and
development. For example, in its General
Comment on HIV and AIDS and the rights
of the child, the Committee states that:
“States, international agencies and nongovernmental organizations must provide
children with a supportive and enabling
environment to carry out their own initiatives,
and to fully participate at both community and
national levels in HIV policy and programme
conceptualization, design, implementation,
coordination, monitoring and review. A variety
of approaches are likely to be necessary
to ensure the participation of children from
all sectors of society, including mechanisms
which encourage children, consistent with their
evolving capacities, to express their views,
have them heard and given due weight in
accordance with their age and maturity.” 137
Children’s contribution to service
development can be obtained through:
• feedback systems for all users of services
• research and consultative processes
with children as respondents and/or
researchers
• working with local or national children’s
councils or parliaments to develop
standards and indicators of rightsrespecting health services
• involving children in inspection and
monitoring of services.

a Guide to assessinG CapaCity to Give Consent
Assessing capacity to give informed consent to treatment can be done with reference to the
following criteria.136
A child could be said to have capacity when he or she understands:
• the type and purpose of the proposed treatment
• the nature and effects of the treatment in broad terms
• the principal benefts and risks
• the consequences of not receiving treatment.

136 P Alderson and J Montgomery, Health care choices: making
decisions with children, Institute for Public Policy Research,
London, 1996
137 Committee on the Rights of the Child, Report on the
43rd Session, September 2006, Day of General Discussion,
Recommendations, para. 36
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younG peopLe invoLved in heaLth promotion in Costa riCa138
A programme that has embraced participation by children and adolescents is the Comprehensive
Adolescent Care Programme (PAIA), which has played a major role in breaking through stereotypes,
myths and cultural resistance in the promotion of comprehensive health for adolescents. The
programme has fostered participatory involvement by young people through the establishment
of a national youth network, the members of which develop training activities in the feld of
comprehensive and reproductive health. The network covers the entire country and includes over
50 organised groups. This is an example of a direct health promotion initiative that has attracted
input from young people by means of a strategy of encouraging social participation by adolescents.
Furthermore, their participation has been made effective through the formation of various types
of groups of adolescents (it makes no difference whether a particular group is concerned with
health care, education, the arts, Red Cross frst aid, Boy Scout work, youth pastoral outreach, other
denominational religious activity and so forth). Not only do these groups receive extensive health
education, their members are also trained as youth leaders and health outreach persons who project
their actions with their various peer groups. This strategy has also sought to develop its effectiveness
through the formation of groups of young leaders who serve as coordinators in various regions of
the country. These, in turn, appoint a representative to sit on a national coordinating group. The local
youth groups, the regional groups and the national coordinating group together constitute what is
known as the National Proactiveyouth Network.

138 Third periodic report of Costa Rica to the Committee on the
Rights of the Child, CRC/C/125/Add.4/October 2004
139 P Kirby, C Lanyon, K Cronin and R Sinclair, Involving children
and young people in policy, service planning, delivery and evaluation,
Department for Children, Schools and Families, London, 2003

younG patients evaLuate hospitaLs in the uK139
Sandwell and West Birmingham hospitals National health Service Trust in the UK currently enables
patients only limited involvement in planning services. The Trust says it is diffcult to change this
because people only use its services for a short time and usually do not want to return, as they
associate hospital with diffcult times. however, the Trust has instigated a number of evaluation
activities to involve parents and young people (although not yet children) in giving feedback on the
service they received:
• monthly satisfaction surveys with young people, parents and those attending the Children’s
Outpatient Department
• ‘speak out’ suggestion slips available on the ward for patients and parents to complete
whenever they want
• Collecting patient ‘stories’ about their whole experience of being in hospital, through
taped interviews
• Collated informal comments (monthly) – staff receive informal feedback from children and
their families throughout their stay and on discharge, and there is a designated time during team
meetings to discuss and record this information
• monthly parents’ focus group
• user group assessment in which a youth group (consisting of older teenagers, some of whom
were over the age of 18) visited the unit, undertaking research and commenting on the broader
aspects of the service provision.
Commissioners of services inﬂuence how children and young people are involved in project
development by requiring that health service organisations involve children both in developing
services and in project evaluations. In one case children are to be involved in selecting which external
agency will evaluate an organisation.

100
in eduCation
Authoritarianism, discrimination and violence
continue to characterise schooling in many
countries. Such environments are not
conducive to the expression of children’s
views nor to those views being taken
seriously. Indeed, many children fail or drop
out of school because of a pedagogy and
environment which ignores their views and
denies them opportunities for participation.
Respecting children’s participation rights in
school will contribute signifcantly to the
attainment of the Millennium Development
Goals (MDGs) on education because:
• it will contribute to the building of skills,
confdence and capacity
• it reduces alienation, disaffection and
dropping out
• it promotes the opportunity to enlist
children as active contributors to the
creation of effective learning environments.
Indeed, respect for participation rights within
education is fundamental to the realisation
of the right to education. The General
Comment on the aims of education makes
clear the importance that the Committee
attaches to the process by which the right
to education is provided:
“…efforts to promote the enjoyment of other
rights must not be undermined, and should
be reinforced, by the values imparted in the
educational process. This includes not only
the content of the curriculum but also the
educational processes, the pedagogical
methods and the environment within which
education takes place, whether it be the home,
school, or elsewhere. Children do not lose their
human rights by virtue of passing through the
school gates. Thus, for example, education
must be provided in a way that respects the
inherent dignity of the child and enables the
child to express his or her views freely in
accordance with article 12 (1) and to
participate in school life. … Compliance with
the values recognized in article 29 (1) clearly
requires that schools be child-friendly in the
fullest sense of the term and that they be
consistent in all respects with the dignity of
the child. The participation of children in school
life, the creation of school communities and
student councils, peer education and peer
counselling, and the involvement of children in
school disciplinary proceedings should be
promoted as part of the process of learning
and experiencing the realization of rights.” 140
The realisation of Article 12 within
education requires action in a number
of areas:
• involvement of children in individual
decisions affecting their education
• the introduction of child-centred learning
• the establishment of democratic
structures within school
• opportunities for children to inform the
development and implementation of
education legislation and policies
• support for national student organisations.
involvement of children in individual
decisions affecting their education
When decisions are made about a child’s
education – for example, to hold the child
back for a year, or to place her or him in
a particular stream or setting – the child
should have the right to be heard before
the fnal decision is made. The right of a
child to be heard must also be respected
when a decision is made to exclude her or
him from school or to impose any other
form of disciplinary measure. In all these
circumstances, the decision must be subject
to judicial or administrative review if the
child wishes to challenge it. The child will
need to have information about how to
challenge the decision, where to go for help
and who can support her or him through
that process.
140 General Comment No. 1, ‘Aims of Education’, CRC/GC/2001/1, April 2001
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a riGhts-Based, ChiLd-FriendLy sChooL141
The child-friendly schools approach, now being adopted in many countries, provides a positive
example of caring, protective and participatory environments that prepare children for active
citizenship within their communities. Such a school:
1. reﬂects and realises the rights of every child – cooperates with other partners to promote
and monitor the wellbeing and rights of all children; defends and protects all children from abuse and
harm (as a sanctuary), both inside and outside the school.
2. sees and understands the whole child, in a broad context – is concerned with what
happens to children before they enter the system (eg, their readiness for school in terms of health
and nutritional status, social and linguistic skills), and once they have left the classroom – back in their
homes, in the community, and in the workplace.
3. is child-centred – encourages participation, creativity, self-esteem and psychosocial wellbeing;
promotes a structured, child-centred curriculum and teaching-learning methods appropriate to the
child’s developmental level, abilities and learning style; and considers the needs of children over the
needs of the other actors in the system.
4. is gender-sensitive and girl-friendly – promotes parity in the enrolment and achievement
of girls and boys; reduces constraints to gender equity and eliminates gender stereotypes; provides
facilities, curricula and learning processes welcoming to girls.
5. promotes quality learning outcomes – encourages children to think critically, ask questions,
express their opinions, and ‘learn how to learn’; helps children master the essential enabling skills
of writing, reading, speaking, listening and mathematics, and the general knowledge and skills
required for living in the new century, including useful traditional knowledge and the values of peace,
democracy, and the acceptance of diversity.
6. provides education based on the reality of children’s lives – ensures that curricular
content responds to the learning needs of individual children as well as to the general objectives of
the education system and the local context and traditional knowledge of families and the community.
7. is ﬂexible and responds to diversity – meets differing circumstances and needs of children
(eg, as determined by gender, culture, social class, ability level).
8.acts to ensure inclusion, respect, and equality of opportunity for all children – does not
stereotype, exclude or discriminate on the basis of difference.
9. promotes mental and physical health – provides emotional support, encourages healthy
behaviours and practices, and guarantees a hygienic, safe, secure, and joyful environment
10. provides education that is affordable and accessible – especially to children and families
most at risk.
11. enhances teacher capacity, morale, commitment and status – ensures that its
teachers have suffcient pre-service training, in-service support and professional development,
status and income.
12. is family-focused – attempts to work with and strengthen families and helps children, parents
and teachers establish harmonious, collaborative partnerships.
13. is community-based – strengthens school governance through a decentralised, community
based approach; encourages parents, local government, community organisations and other
institutions of civil society to participate in the management as well as the fnancing of education;
promotes community partnerships and networks focused on the rights and wellbeing of children.

141 See http://www.unicef.org/lifeskills/fles/CFSchecklist.doc
102
participatory child-centred learning
Children and young people should be
recognised as active contributors to
their own learning, rather than passive
recipients.142 It is also important to respect
the evolving and differing capacities
of children, together with recognition
that children do not acquire skills and
knowledge at fxed or pre-determined
ages.143 Educational environments, including
early years provision, should enable and
encourage children to take an active role
in the process of their own learning.144
Teaching and learning must involve a variety
of interactive learning methodologies
to create stimulating and participatory
learning environments. The role of
teachers, and others involved in creating
or strengthening learning opportunities,
is to facilitate participatory learning
rather than simply to transmit knowledge.
Through active participation, children
can be helped to acquire skills in thinking,
analysing, investigating, creating and applying
knowledge, so that they can achieve their
optimum potential. Classroom environments
and teaching and learning resources need to
reﬂect a participatory approach to learning
with appropriate tools and resources to
reﬂect these differences. Curricula need
to be adaptable to children’s own local
communities, in order that they can both
learn about and contribute through their
education to strengthening the environment
they live in.
democratic school environments
Beyond the actual pedagogy of the
classroom, it is important that children are
acknowledged as democratic participants
throughout the school environment.
Governments need to introduce a legal
framework placing an obligation on every
school to facilitate the establishment of
democratic procedures through which
children can express their views.

three exampLes oF respeCt For sChooLChiLdren’s
riGht to Be heard
Germany: saarland
The 1996 school legislation provides that: “Every pupil must be given a hearing, before any
disciplinary decision is taken, and the pupil can take with them another pupil or a teacher whom he
or she trusts as a supporter.”
denmark
Since 1998, schools have been required by law to draw up a complaints procedure. In secondary
schools, this applies to staff, parents and pupils. The school board must appoint a complaints
committee to which complaints can be submitted.
norway
Children have full autonomy on all education issues from the age of 15 years.

142 Ibid.
143 Committee on the Rights of the Child, Report on the 26th
Session, January 2001, CRC/C/103 Annex Ix, para 12, United
Nations, Geneva
144 A human rights-based approach to EFA: A framework for the
realisation of children’s right to and rights in education, UNICEF/
UNESCO, 2007
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GirL-FriendLy sChooLs in eGypt145
Promoting a participatory learning environment is an important means of building opportunities for
girls. In the girl-friendly schools that have been developed in Egypt, girls are encouraged to express
their thoughts and needs openly, and without any fear of censorship or rejection. Teaching is driven
by a conviction that children are natural learners, and that it is the role of facilitators to present
problem-based activities which children are invited to address, drawing holistically, critically and
creatively on a broad range of knowledge areas. The emphasis is on situated learning, on problem
solving, on seeking solutions both individually and in teams, through dialogue and cooperative peer
learning. Critical and creative thinking are taken to be the norm. Much of the time in the classroom
is spent in ‘work segments’, which are largely managed by the students themselves rather than tightly
orchestrated by the teacher. Teacher-centred education tends to emphasise patterns that can be
characterised as ‘listen-listen-listen-work’, with the teacher mostly addressing the whole class. In
these girl-friendly schools, instead of the teacher merely asking questions and expecting students to
respond in what has aptly been called the ‘ping-pong’ approach, pupils ask each other questions, and
also address questions to the teacher. More importantly, these questions do not focus on mere recall,
but require classmates to show understanding, to analyse, to evaluate, criticise and create. Teachers
use a range of pedagogic tools including brainstorming, role play, mime, puppet theatre, plastic arts
and hands-on activities, show-and-tell, music, singing and poetry-reciting. Classroom behaviour allows
pupils to depart from routines, and to be creative and spontaneous, and to seamlessly merge work
tasks with social and recreational needs.
The impact of these schools is profound. Teachers rarely need to impose discipline. The girls express
positive views about their teachers. And teachers are positive about the students, with one quoted
as saying, “There’s an indicator of success for you: the girls are becoming free spirits, expressing
themselves in such a self-confdent manner!” And parents who initially expressed concern about
the focus on playing and drawing, have now begun to value the extent to which these methods are
effective in teaching reading and writing. One girl, when asked what schooling meant to her, replied:
“The school has opened up the world for me.”

145 Adapted from: R Sultana, The Girls’ Education Initiative in Egypt, UNICEF, 2008
Schools need to promote environments
in which children are engaged as active
participants at all levels. Opportunities must
be created for children to be involved in
decision-making processes in the school,
for example, through class councils, school
councils, and student representation on
school boards and committees, where
they will have the opportunity to express
their views on the development and
implementation of school policies. The
right to such involvement needs to be
enshrined in legislation rather than relying
on the goodwill of authorities, schools and
headteachers to implement them. Efforts
also must be made to make teachers aware
of the risks of manipulating children to
pursue adult agendas.
In addition, children can be involved:
• as peer educators, and mentors for
younger children
• in advising on issues such as design of
schools, playgrounds and latrines
• in helping develop, and providing feedback
and evaluation on, teaching methods and
the curriculum
• as mediators helping resolve conﬂicts
104
• in recruitment and appraisal of teachers
• in providing guidance on strategies to
eliminate discrimination, bullying or
corporal punishment in schools150
• in making the curriculum more relevant to
children’s reality.
One approach to creating a participatory
environment is to employ the use of ‘circle
time’, a process whereby at the end of each
day children come together in a circle to
discuss issues of concern to them, identify
problems and explore solutions. Children
can also be involved in establishing the
indicators against which they monitor the
extent to which a school is respecting
the rights of all its members and taking
part in a process of regular evaluation of
compliance with those indicators. They
can then share in the responsibility of
developing strategies for improving practice.
And in all these strategies, efforts need to
be made to ensure the equal opportunities
for participation by all children, including the
most marginalised.

evidenCe oFthe BeneFits assoCiated with
partiCipatory LearninG146
A small pilot study for the UK Government found a “positive association” between participation
and exam attainment at 16 years, when comparing secondary schools in England which prioritise
participatory activities for a large percentage of students with other similar, but non-participatory,
schools. Additionally, research in Norway, although still in the early stages of development, has
shown that there are clear positive relationships between the general wellbeing of students, their
involvement in learning, academic self-esteem and achievement in some subjects.147 Early years
research has found that more participatory settings – nurseries in which teachers respond to
children’s self-initiated play in a loosely structured but supportive environment, and those which
adopt the ‘high/Scope’ approach in which children ‘plan, do and review’ their own activities – are
associated with more positive long-term outcomes than nursery settings in which teachers directly
teach children academic skills.148
These positive outcomes found in participatory settings included a lower percentage (8%) of pupils
needing treatment for emotional impairment or disturbance during schooling (compared with 47%
in directive settings), a higher percentage planning to go to university, increased numbers doing
voluntary work, and a reduced risk of offending. Teachers explained that they felt listening to children
improved their teaching practice.
Recent research into students themselves carrying out research in schools demonstrates that this
type of participatory activity can give less-experienced teachers confdence, and can renew the
enthusiasm of those who are more experienced.149 This research cited other benefts: improved
relationships within a learning environment, greater respect for teachers, increased commitment
from pupils and enhanced attitudes to learning, resulting in improved attendance and greater
commitment to doing homework.

146 D hannam, A pilot study to evaluate the impact of student
participation aspects of the citizenship order on standards
of education in secondary schools, paper for ESRC seminar,
‘Consulting Pupils on Teaching and Learning’, Cambridge
University, 2001; www.csv.org.uk/csv/hannamreport.pdf
147 Cited in D hannam, ‘Participation and Achievement. Examples
of research that demonstrate associations or connections
between student participation and learning, or other outcomes
that support it’, Unpublished report/review conducted for the
ministerial adviser at the Citizenship Unit, Department for
Education and Science, London, 2003
148 L J Schweinhart and D P Weikart, Lasting Differences: The High/
Scope Preschool Curriculum Comparison Study Through Age 23, high/
Scope Educational Research Foundation, Michigan, 1997
149 S Bragg and M Fielding, Students as Researchers: Making a
Difference, Pearsons, Cambridge, 2003
150 General Comment No. 8, ‘The Right of the Child to Protection
from Corporal Punishment and Other Forms of Cruel and
Degrading Treatment’, CRC/C/GC/8, 2006
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151 L Davies and G Kirkpatrick, Euridem Project, Children’s Rights Alliance for England, London, 2000

two exampLes oF LeGisLation to estaBLish demoCratiC
riGhts in sChooLs151
under the 1994 act on the Folkeskole section 42 (1) (covering the entire period of
compulsory education), a School Board shall be set up at each school, and it shall have the
following composition:
• 5–7 parent representatives
• 2 teacher representatives
• 2 pupil representatives elected by and from among the pupils of the school.
Section 46 on ‘Advisory Bodies’ stipulates that there should be a pedagogic council, consisting of all
teaching staff, and at all schools with fve or more form levels, pupils shall set up a pupils’ council.
There is an annual election of two representatives from each class for the pupils’ council. Each class
also has Klassentiems, the ‘hour of the class’ – a weekly lesson devoted to internal, social problems
and practicalities.
In a danish act of 1997 dealing with upper secondary schools, Section 14 states: “Each upper
secondary school will set up a pupils’ council, appointed by and among the school’s pupils. The
pupils’ council will submit reports to the headmaster, inter alia, on general matters concerning
pupils’ affairs.”
Under Section 5, subsection 9 of the danish executive order on upper secondary schools,
teachers and students must discuss the teaching regularly and undertake internal assessments, the
purpose of which is to enable the students and the teachers to continuously improve the teaching in
the school.
the netherlands
under the education participation act, 1992, every primary, secondary and special school
is legally required to set up a participation Council. In primary schools this comprises an
equal number of elected staff and parent representatives; in secondary schools it comprises an
equal number of elected staff and pupil/parent representatives. The participation council has a
number of general powers and has the right to give its advice or consent and to put forward
proposals. Secondary school pupils can set up a student council and parents can participate through
the parents’ council, which advises the parent representatives in the participation council and
coordinates parent activities.
According to the school act, schools must strive to ensure that all pupils:
• take personal responsibility for their studies and working environments
• gradually exercise greater inﬂuence over their education and the internal work of the school
• have an understanding of democratic principles and develop their ability to work in
democratic ways.
The guidelines in the 1994 Curriculum for the Compulsory School System state that all who work
in the school shall support the pupils’ ability and willingness to both inﬂuence and take responsibility
for the social, cultural and physical school environment; and that the teacher shall (inter alia):
• start with the recognition that the pupils are able and willing to take personal responsibility for the
learning and work in school
• ensure that all pupils irrespective of sex, social or cultural background have real inﬂuence over
the working methods and structures, and the content of their education, and that this inﬂuence
increases as they grow in age and maturity
• together with pupils plan and evaluate the teaching
• prepare the pupils for participating in and sharing the joint responsibilities, rights and obligations
that characterise a democratic society.

106

issues raised By ChiLdren’s ConsuLtative Bodies in sweden152
Research looking at school councils and working groups in Swedish schools showed that these
covered a huge range of ideas, activities and issues, including:
• the opportunity for pupils to discuss problems they were having with teachers
• producing a student yearbook
• fundraising projects
• support for anti-bullying
• support for anti-racism, cultural days
• ideas for ‘special interest’ days
• lengthening the morning break
• lunchtime queues
• how students interact with each other
• photocopying facilities
• canteen prices and quality
• student behaviour in relation to some teachers.

152 L Davies and G Kirkpatrick, The Euridem Project, Children’s Rights
Alliance for England, London, 2000
153 For more information about the Rights Respecting Schools
programme, go to: http://www.unicef.org.uk/Education/ImpactEvidence/External-evaluation/

uniCeF-uK’s riGhts respeCtinG sChooLs proGramme153
UNICEF-UK’s Rights Respecting Schools (RRS) programme teaches about children’s and human
rights but, most importantly, supports schools to model rights and respect in all its relationships:
teacher/adults–pupils; pupils–teacher/adults; pupils–pupils.
An independent study was carried out to compare schools in which the RRS approach was fully
incorporated with those in which it was less fully incorporated. The study found that in the former,
among pupils of all age groups, there were improvements in social relationships, behaviour and
achievement. Pupils:
• were more respectful and helpful to others, and less aggressive and disruptive
• showed greater respect for the school environment
• were more careful with books, desks and school equipment
• participated more in the classroom and in extra-curricular activities such as clubs and school
councils
• showed enhanced academic engagement and achievement.this was reﬂected in improved critical
thinking skills, confdence in tackling new tasks, and increased test scores
• demonstrated increased self-regulatory capacity, accepting that the responsibilities they had
learned were the concomitants of their rights.
In addition, teachers:
• reported an overall positive effect of rrS on their teaching and relationships within the school
• reported fewer feelings of exhaustion as a direct result of their work, felt more energised when
dealing with students, experienced less frustration with teaching, and reported an increase in a
sense of personal achievement.
Implementation of RRS was the most sustained and progressive in those schools where headteachers
were fully supportive of the approach and adopted an effective strategy for using RRS as an
overarching framework into which all other initiatives were integrated. Some headteachers reported
a number of challenges to the introduction of RRS, including pressures to improve pupil achievement,
reluctance on the part of some teachers to adopt the approach, and initiative overload. however,
the data from those schools in which RRS has become fully embedded indicate that, over time, it
becomes self-perpetuating, by virtue of its positive outcomes for both pupils and teachers.

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“when ChiLdren Govern, the sChooL does Better”:
a partiCipatory approaCh in Four aFriCan Countries154
While children are often asked in school to sit down, quieten down, and settle down, the children’s
government encourages children to stand up, speak up, and take action.
what is a children’s government?
Children’s government is a tool to promote schools in which education is improved and which are
safe, clean, enriching, fair, gender-sensitive and inclusive. It involves the active participation of the
students themselves, and this has led to schools being successfully transformed in the four countries
of West and Central Africa where it is currently used: Mali, Cameroon, Guinea and Guinea Bissau.
how does a children’s government work?
With discreet guidance from adults, and through role play, the children organise themselves into
ministries, elect ministers, make decisions, take actions and hold themselves (and the adults)
accountable for fulflling their responsibilities. Through their participation in children’s governments,
children learn about citizenship rights and responsibilities, problem-solving and communication skills,
and have the chance to experience an environment of team spirit and one in which boys and girls are
treated equally. Children’s governments allow children not only to learn about democracy and peace,
social justice and gender equality, but to exercise their freedom of expression (and self-discipline)
and to become true decision-makers.
While adults provide guidance on how to form a government and how to engage in activities and
achieve certain goals, it is the children themselves who elect ministers and delegates, diagnose
the needs of the school, draw up action plans, take action, and then reﬂect on their experience.
Ministers and delegates of a children’s government are elected not because of their prior experience
but rather according to their human qualities, such as kindness and good communication and
organisation skills. An equal number of boys and girls must be elected as ministers. Each student
elected holds her or his term for one year. The number of ministers depends on the problems and
needs identifed by the students themselves at the beginning of each school year.
The work of children’s governments brings improvements to many different aspects of school and
community life such as education, health, protection, water and hIv and AIDS. Activities include
tutoring, initiating dialogue with teachers, holding awareness-raising campaigns, improving the school
physical environment, and practising good hygiene. These and other activities are initiated by children,
but can involve various members of the community such as parents and religious leaders. Children’s
talents are allowed to ﬂourish through taking part in planning and action.

154 Adapted from: F Traoe, ‘Quand les élèves gouvernent, l’école va mieux’, Le Républicain, 16 March 2004
108

evaLuatinG sChooL LiFe in sweden155
In Sweden, the National Agency for Education is responsible for a programme of national evaluation.
Aims of the National Agency approach are:
• to collect and identify problems and changes with as great a coverage as possible nationally
• to create frameworks of reference that place the school as a social system in a national context in
which the concepts of understanding and explanation are given central importance
• to perform evaluation within a broad social perspective, recognising the relationship between
education, production and social life.
The key focus is on research rather than the setting of standards. Not only is there an equal interest
in social development as in academic achievement, but the agency uses a range of national survey
techniques to gain information. In particular, it asks pupils what they think about school. The pupils
are asked for information on what the work of the school means for the individual pupil in the
following areas: rights and obligations, social development and the development of knowledge and
competence. The pupil perspective concentrates on the role of the school for the individual student,
above all with regard to the development of self-identity. It concerns the individual’s experience of
the school, as an environment in which the individual interacts with other individuals and the group,
and as a social learning and working environment.

155 L Davies and G Kirkpatrick, The Euridem Project, Children’s Rights Alliance for England, London, 2000
participation in education policy
Beyond the school, children need to be
involved at the local and national levels on
all aspects of education policy, including
the development of school curricula,
teaching methods, school structures,
standards, budgeting and resources, and
child protection systems. In addition, the
Committee encourages governments to
support and encourage the development of
independent children’s organisations which
can play a role in monitoring and evaluating
the quality of education provided in schools
and respect for children’s rights in the
education system.
national student organisations
Some countries have supported the
establishment of national student
organisations or unions which can provide
a forum for children. Not only do such
organisations provide an invaluable
opportunity for students to gain experience
of democratic engagement, they also offer a
space where they can:
• share and develop ideas about how to
strengthen the education system
• provide feedback to government on the
impact of education legislation and policies
• advocate and promote the right to
education for all children
• share ideas for including marginalised
children in school
• organise social and cultural activities both
nationally and within local communities to
promote awareness of the role of schools
and of the education they are providing.
In these ways, student organisations can
serve as a positive force within society and
provide governments with an invaluable
source of information and expertise to
inform policy-making. However, these
organisations must be autonomous and
independent of government, and free of
political control or manipulation.
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in pLay, reCreation, sport
and CuLturaL aCtivities
Children have a right to play. Play
and recreation is vital to children’s
development, providing the opportunity
for enjoyment, exploration, refuge, and
participation in cultural and social events.
There is a widespread view among child
development experts that play is the very
centre of children’s spontaneous urge for
development and should be understood as
a core dimension of the quality of people’s
engagement with the world.157 Indeed,
children will create opportunities for play
in the most inauspicious circumstances: in
the course of a working day, in hospital,
in refugee camps, during lessons. And
through it, children acquire social skills, and
develop creativity and innovation, capacity
to negotiate and to care for others, and the
ability to establish, understand and abide by
rules. However, central to the right to play
is the principle that children must be free
to create their own activities and games
without adult control. In other words, the
right to play is exercised through the right of
children to express their own views.
However, despite children’s considerable
facility for creating play opportunities, the
environment in which many children live
militates against its adequate realisation.
In some cases, parents’ own lack of
experience of play limits their ability to
create, or recognise the importance of,
play environments for their children. Too
often play is viewed as wasted time and
of no constructive value. Many children
with disabilities are denied any real chance
for play as a result of discrimination, social
exclusion and the physical barriers imposed
by the environment. The disproportionate
burden of work that falls on girls in many
parts of the world prohibits opportunities
for play. Children in prisons, in childcare
institutions, in long-term hospital care or
refugee camps often lack any facilities or
space for play. Excessive formal demands
on children’s time, whether through paid
employment or education, can intrude
on the time available in children’s lives for

the danish pupiL union156
The Danish Pupil Union is supported by the government, with fnancing from two foundations and
from the national lottery. It is routinely consulted by the Ministry of Education at all stages of any
change in the education system, and therefore pupils are not only kept in the picture but feel that
their voices are heard. It publishes a magazine, funded through advertising, which is distributed
to every school in Denmark and provides information to pupils on what is happening in the
Ministry. Representatives of the union visit as many schools as possible, to tell them about the
organisation and encourage individual or school membership. The union is involved in training, and
promotes students’ participation in democracy, emphasising the importance of getting all students
to participate. Many schools have ‘away weekends’ to enable school council members to learn
cooperation, negotiation skills, etc, and the union will help with the running of these events.
The union feels that the pupils’ voice is defnitely heard in the Ministry, and that it effectively
‘represents’ them in government. Even though it would like to have an ever greater say, especially
when new laws are made that affect schools and schoolchildren, there is nonetheless a recognition
that it does have a direct channel of communication with government. Any consultative procedure
will automatically include Pupil Union representatives, along with parents, teachers and higher
education student organisations.

156 Ibid.
157 A Petren and R hart, ‘The Right to Play’ in Children’s Rights:
Turning Principles into Practice, UNICEF/Save the Children,
Kathmandu, 2000
110
play. And increasingly, in many developed
countries, the time children have outside
school is organised by their parents through
clubs, additional classes and formal, adult-led
activities. All these barriers deny children
the right to express themselves through
unsupervised play.158
In order to protect and promote the
right of children to exercise choice in the
opportunity to play, government action is
needed to ensure:
• within the school timetable, an adequate
allocation of time each day for children to
play without adult control or organisation
of their activities
• creation of safe spaces in the local
environment where children can play
independently. Particular attention needs
to be given to enabling children with
disabilities to be able to access such
spaces. Article 30 of the Convention on
the Rights of Persons with Disabilities
emphasises the equal right of children
with disabilities to play. Governments
therefore need to ensure that play
opportunities are accessible and inclusive
• appropriate training of relevant
professionals on the right to free play
and its importance for the healthy
development of children
• awareness-raising for parents on the role
of free play in children’s development
• the opportunity for children in institutions
– whether these be childcare, health or
penal institutions – to engage in free play
on a daily basis.
158 Children’s Right to Play: An examination of the importance of play in
the lives of children worldwide, International Play Association, 2009
159 Adapted from: C O’Kane, Children and Young People as Citizens:
Partners for Social Change, Save the Children UK, 2003

Centre For perForminG arts, sri LanKa159
The Centre for Performing Arts (CPA) aims to increase reconciliation among different communities
in Sri Lanka through art and cultural programmes, focusing particularly on children and youth.
Through drama, poetry and other cultural activities, children learn to express themselves and share
their experiences, particularly relating to war and trauma, with other children and young people.
Inter-cultural exchanges, joint performances and campfres are organised, as supportive environments
for children from different communities to express their feelings about war and act as agents for
peace. Seminars on children’s rights and women’s rights have also been organised.
CPA works through 20 units around the country. Eleven of the units are run by CPA and another
nine are run as ‘Children’s Zones of Peace’ (part of an initiative undertaken together with UNICEF).
These units reach 2,500 children and young people and through their cultural programmes are
building the foundations of peace among Sri Lanka’s youth.
When Darshana (a wordless play) was being performed in different locations around the country,
a child from Jaffna said that before he watched the drama the only Singhalese people he had ever
known were the soldiers at the checkpoint. All his impressions were based on them, but now that he
had met Singhalese children he realised that they were just like he was. Likewise, during one of the
camps a Singhalese child said: “I thought every Tamil person was a tiger. Now, having lived together, I
realise they are like me … And we wonder what have these adults been fghting for?”
CPA has a special programme with Save the Children in Jaffna to promote sharing of capabilities and
to prepare children in creative arts, particularly drama. Through their own Child Clubs the children
have also been involved in landmine awareness programmes.

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In addition, children should be consulted
and involved in the creation of play
environments. Very young children and some
children with disabilities who are unable to
participate in formal consultative processes
should be provided with particular
opportunities to express their wishes.
Article 12 also has implications for children’s
access to cultural activities. While the right
to participate in cultural life is expressed
in Article 31 of the UNCRC, the right to
be heard in cultural activities must also be
respected. For example, children have the
right not only to learn about and practise
aspects of their traditional culture, such as
folk-dance and music, but also to question,
challenge and change them. Some traditional
cultural activities may reinforce the
subjugation of women, or exclude children
with disabilities. The right of children to
question these practices, and offer positive
alternatives, needs to be protected.
160 Direct experience of the author

invoLvinG ChiLdren in desiGninG a sChooL pLayGround
in enGLand160
In a primary school in England, children voiced their concerns through the school council that the
playground was not a safe or enjoyable place for most children to play in. The space was dominated
by older boys playing football, and the girls and younger children felt intimidated and were restricted
to using the edges of the playground.
The headteacher responded by setting up a consultative process with the whole school to design a
new way of organising the playground. he also agreed to provide the children with a limited budget
to pay for the equipment and changes that were needed. As a result:
• the children designed a quiet area, surrounded by a very low hedge where children could sit and
talk without being disrupted by boisterous physical games.
• they agreed that part of the playground would be allocated to football and other physical games,
but that its usage would be organised so that different age groups could use it each day. There
were four year groups in the school. Each year group would be allowed to play football (or other
games) on the space on a given day of the week. The ffth day was allocated to girls only.
• the children chose to purchase a climbing frame, the use of which was also allocated to year
groups on a daily basis.
The outcome of the process was a signifcantly improved playground, a fairer allocation of the space,
and a real sense of empowerment among the children, who had been listened to, taken seriously, and
achieved a very concrete improvement in their school lives.

112
in the media
The Committee on the Rights of the
Child has recognised the essential role of
the media in promoting awareness of the
right of children to express their views,
and has urged the various forms of media,
particularly radio and television, to dedicate
resources to the inclusion of children in
the development of programmes and
to enabling children to develop and lead
media initiatives concerning their rights.161
In many countries throughout the world
there are examples of children producing
their own newspapers, submitting articles
for mainstream media, and participating
in radio and television programmes.
These forms of engagement not only
build skills and confdence, but they also
open up opportunities for children’s own
perspectives to be disseminated to a wide
audience, as well as challenging negative
assumptions about children’s capacities
and competence.
in the worKpLaCe
Many millions of children continue to be
engaged in employment. Too often they
have no say in the fact that they are
working at all, the nature of the work they
are doing, or the conditions under which
they are required to work. In order to
comply with the rights of these children to
be heard and taken seriously in relation
to their employment, governments
need to take the action to consult with
and involve children:
• in the development of policies to ensure
greater compliance with their right
to education and to protection them
from economic exploitation consistent
with International Labour Organization
Conventions Nos. 138 (1973) and
182 (1999)
• in the development of social protection
policies which will support families to send
their children to school and avoid reliance
on children’s wages

ChiLd reporters as aGents oF ChanGe in india162
A Child Reporters’ project in Koraput, in the Indian state of Orissa (now known as Odisha), started
with the selection of 100 children aged between 8 and 14 years – ten from each of ten schools –
in collaboration with the local authority and civil society partners. The children were selected by
children, parents and the schools. They attended orientation workshops on issues of development,
journalism and reporting. Each team of ten then noted down their thoughts and daily observations in
diaries, which were collected together, and the best writings were included in a monthly newsletter.
The selections were made by an adult local facilitating group, but the quality, content and selection
of reports were constantly discussed with the children. A group of the children were then also
trained in using audio-visual equipment, and made a flm recording a local planning process. A number
of them went on to speak at national and international conferences. It is important to note that
the children involved came from a remote part of India where they had never before even seen a
television. From starting out shy and unable to speak ﬂuently, they became confdent and successful
in inﬂuencing their local communities.
“The best was when we had written on the bad condition of our village road and the road
connecting our village with the block headquarters. It had come to our mind when one of our
friends fell and injured himself on the muddy road. We all wrote the same report and wished it could
be repaired. The chief administrative offcer read the news and we also spoke to him when he visited
our village. he was nice and repaired the road. We felt happy, as everyone in the village has said ‘hail
the Child Reporters!’” Eleven-year-old boy

161 Committee on the Rights of the Child, Report on the
43rd Session, September 2006, Day of General Discussion,
Recommendations
162 Adapted from: L Acharya, ‘Child Reporters as Agents of Change’
in B Percy-Smith and N Thomas (eds) A Handbook of Children and
Young People’s Participation, Routledge, London, 2010
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chapter SIx • impLementinG artiCLe 12 in diFFerent settinGs
• in the development of enhanced
enforcement mechanisms to protect
children from harmful child labour.
Within the actual working environment,
action needs to be taken to ensure that
children are afforded the right to be heard:
• by being able to join trade unions
established to protect the rights of
working people
• by forming their own organisations of
working children to negotiate better
working conditions
• when work sites and conditions of work
are examined by inspectors investigating
the implementation of labour laws
• in development and implementation
of programmes for the reduction and
eradication of child labour.
in situations oFvioLenCe
The UNCRC establishes the right of
the child to be protected from all forms
of violence and the responsibility of
governments to ensure this right for every
child without any discrimination. It is only
if children both understand their right to
protection from violence and have access
to effective mechanisms to be heard that
it is possible to protect them effectively.
However, much of the violence perpetrated
against children goes unchallenged: certain
forms of abusive behaviour are understood
by children as accepted practices, such
as female genital mutilation, sexual abuse,
early marriage and physical punishment. In
particular, girls in many societies are taught
to accept a marginalised and powerless role
in society, in which they are not entitled to
be heard. They do not know that they are
entitled to protection from such treatment.
Even when they do know they have a right
to protection, there are often no childfriendly reporting mechanisms available to
them. There are no avenues through which
they can report in confdence and safety
about maltreatment they experience, and
no channel to communicate their concerns
to those responsible for their protection.
It is particularly diffcult for a child to report
an incidence of abuse in countries where
there is no tradition of children speaking up
on their own behalf. The problems are
intensifed in the context of sexual abuse.
Where such things are not talked about, the
child may have no language through which
to describe or articulate what has happened
and there may be profound stigma attached
to sexual activity. Children will often be
reluctant to talk to an adult because of fear
that their parents, or offcials, such as the

ChiLdren neGotiatinGtheir own proteCtion From harmFuL
ChiLd LaBour in india163
Concerned for Working Children, an NGO in India, consulted a group of children in each of eight
panchayats (local village administrations) in India who felt that existing defnitions of work in their
day-to-day lives were irrelevant and unhelpful. Each group undertook a detailed analysis of all forms
of work in which children were likely to participate, with an assessment of the ages at which, and
the contexts in which, they felt it was either benefcial or harmful. All work viewed as harmful was
defned as ‘child labour’. Their analysis was then used as the basis for negotiating within their local
community for it to become ‘child-labour free’. The children put forward their recommendations in
their local panchayats and, once their recommendations were accepted, a task force comprising local
people, including children, was established to oversee their implementation. This approach means that
policy-making takes account of local conditions and of occupational hazards, and engages children
directly in defning acceptable and unacceptable work, as well as in advocating, negotiating and
monitoring with regard to the standards that they themselves have developed.

163 Concerned for Working Children, Work we can and cannot do, by children of Balkur, India, 1999
114
police, will be told. They may feel that such
exposure would be more damaging than
the abuse itself: they may be punished for
reporting it, blamed for the fact that it took
place and stigmatised as a consequence.
Reporting can lead to conﬂict within
the family or community, risk of reprisals,
re-victimisation by the authorities, and
further violence. It is extremely important
therefore to develop opportunities for
children to talk in safety and to understand
the boundaries of confdentiality they are
being provided with.
Governments should take note of the
fndings of the UN Secretary-General’s
Study on Violence against Children, and
implement fully its recommendations,
including the recommendation to provide
the space for children to freely express
their views and give these views due weight
in all aspects of prevention, reporting and

BreaKinGthe siLenCe around ChiLd sexuaL aBuse
in LeBanon164
Kafa (which means ‘enough’) is a local NGO working on violence and exploitation in Lebanon.
It has undertaken research to assess the prevalence of child sexual abuse. The project explores
knowledge and attitudes and identifes the barriers to seeking help. It has been undertaken in the
context of the ‘July 2006 Conﬂict’, which displaced much of the population in the south and the
Beirut suburbs. Many families had to stay in overcrowded places with strangers, increasing the risk
of child sexual abuse.
In 2007, over 1,000 children aged 9 to 12 years from camps for displaced persons and summer
camps participated in the study, mainly by responding to a questionnaire. In addition, around 250
schoolchildren were involved in fve awareness-raising sessions on sexual abuse. The study led to
follow-up work with 15 children identifed as directly affected by sexual abuse. Some of the feld
researchers are also organising sessions on children’s rights with both children and parents. Broader
follow-up is being planned, including development of a pilot toolkit and training manual for educators
and social workers, capacity-building and awareness sessions for children in schools using the toolkit,
and work with government authorities to develop appropriate policies. Through the Ministry of
Social Affairs, the government has indicated its willingness to adopt a national strategy on child
sexual abuse – a clear and positive outcome of the project. It will be important to ensure support
for children’s meaningful and effective involvement in developing, implementing and monitoring
such a strategy.

eGypt’s strateGies For taCKLinG FemaLe GenitaL mutiLation165
In seeking to tackle female genital mutilation (FGM), Egypt has criminalised the practice in the Penal
Code. however, it recognised that legislation alone would not achieve change. It was also necessary
to create mechanisms through which girls could seek help to prevent its occurrence. Accordingly,
a child helpline was established, through which counselling was provided to families with girls at
risk and through which violations could be reported. Child protection committees established at
governmental level also ensured follow-up. It is acknowledged that the creation of these avenues for
girls to be heard have been a key factor in combating FGM.

164 http://www.kafa.org.lb/FOA.aspx?code=2&Dcode=2+title=Walki
ng%20Towards%20Safety
165 Egypt’s report to the human Rights Council, Universal Periodic
Review, 2010, available at http://www.crin.org/resources/
infoDetail.asp?ID=21865
EvERy ChILD’S RIGhT TO BE hEARD
115
chapter SIx • impLementinG artiCLe 12 in diFFerent settinGs
monitoring violence against them.166 In
particular, action to ensure that children can
express their views when they experience
violence, exploitation or abuse, will need
to include:
• the introduction of programmes to ensure
that children understand that they have a
right to protection. This can be achieved
by including information on rights
within the school curriculum, promoting
campaigns in the media informing children
about their rights and where to go for
help, distributing posters and leaﬂets
in schools, doctors’ surgeries, hospital
and clinics, youth clubs, local shops and
religious institutions
• the establishment of hotlines or websites
where children can access professional
help and support in confdence
• access to information through media that
are accessible to children with disabilities,
for example in Braille, through appropriate
electronic formats, and by provision of
signing in any television programming
• awareness-raising and education
for parents to challenge patterns of
discrimination against girls, and the denial
of their right to be heard
• training for all professionals working with
children to make them aware of signs of
abuse, and to listen to children
• measures to encourage the development
of professional codes of practice providing
clear guidance on children’s right to
confdentiality, and to ensure that
children are provided with information
on these codes
• ensuring that every institution for children,
whether it be a day centre, school,
hospital, orphanage, care home or penal
institution, establishes a procedure where
children can report any instance of abuse
(see also page 57 for more information
on complaints mechanisms)
• exploring mechanisms through which
children with disabilities can report
violence or abuse. Article 16 of the UN
Convention on the Rights of Persons
with Disabilities places a clear obligation
on governments to provide support for
children with disabilities to recognise,
avoid and report instances of exploitation,
violence and abuse167
• supporting and facilitating children to
research, share information and put
forward proposals on prevention of
violence
• recognition that many of the routes
described above are not accessible to
children with disabilities; for example,
they may not be in school, they cannot
access hotlines, they are less mobile, and
need alternative forms of communication.
Efforts need to be made with disabled
people’s organisations, as well as with
children with disabilities themselves, to
explore strategies that will work for them.
In addition, it is necessary to create
opportunities for children to inform the
laws, policies, services and programmes
designed to protect them from violence.
Particular attention needs to be paid
to ensuring that marginalised and
disadvantaged children, such as exploited
children, street children or refugee children,
are not excluded from consultative
processes designed to elicit views on
relevant legislation and policy processes.
Governments should take action to
implement the recommendation in the
Secretary-General’s Study on Violence
against Children to support and encourage
children’s organisations and child-led
initiatives to address violence and to include
these organisations in the elaboration,
establishment and evaluation of anti-violence
programmes and measures, so that children
can play a key role in their own protection.
166 Report of the independent expert for the UN Study onviolence
against Children, General Assembly, 61st Session, October 2006
(A/61/299)
167 For more information on the rights of children with disabilities,
see G Lansdown, See Me Hear Me, A guide to using the CRPD to
promote the rights of children with disabilities, Save the Children,
London, 2009.
116

ChiLdren’s partiCipation in the un study on
vioLenCe aGainst ChiLdren168
The preparation for the UN Study onviolence against Children involved governments, international
organisations, civil society groups, research institutions and children across the world. Children’s
participation in the study showed the value of children’s views and their contributions on matters
of relevance and importance to them. Children and young people took on many roles during the
study. They were advisers, documenters, advocates, respondents, researchers and facilitators as well
as active participants during national, regional and global consultations. They participated in the
many interlinked national and regional initiatives, activities and events, including the nine regional
consultations held in 2005. Children were also active participants in case studies, development of
innovative child-friendly publications and documentation of children’s voices. At each level (from
local to global) they made clear recommendations about how to stop the violence. They also had the
opportunity to demonstrate the actions they have taken to stop violence against children.
The Secretary-General’s report reﬂects recommendations made by children during the process.
There was explicit recognition of children’s necessary role in efforts to address violence against
them and to better protect themselves, and calls for governments and others to make sure they are
involved. Ensuring the participation of children is one of the study’s 12 overarching recommendations.
Recommendation 7 calls for States to “actively engage with children and respect their views in
all aspects of prevention, response and monitoring of violence against them, taking into account
Article 12 of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child”. Governments are asked specifcally to
report on this, as well as on the other 11 overarching recommendations. In the coming years, this
will provide an opportunity to develop and monitor structures to ensure children’s participation in
follow-up to the study. It will also highlight good examples of government practice in taking children
seriously, and will reveal the sustainability of these efforts and the possibilities for scaling them up.

168 Report of the independent expert for the UN Study onviolence against
Children, General Assembly, 61st Session, October 2006 (A/61/299)
EvERy ChILD’S RIGhT TO BE hEARD
117
aCtion is needed at every LeveL oF soCiety in order to
impLement the oBLiGations under artiCLe 12 to ensure
ChiLdren’s riGhts are respeCted:
• in the family – to take decisions for themselves in
accordance with their evolving capacities; this requires
supporting and encouraging parents to listen to their
children when making decisions that affect them and to
respect their right to be involved in these decisions
• in alternative care – to be involved in all aspects of
their care, to be given information about all actions
proposed, and to have access to complaints mechanisms,
to an independent inspectorate and to an independent
monitoring body
• in healthcare – to involvement in decisions concerning care
and treatment, to access confdential health counselling,
and to be able to consent to treatment consistent with
evolving capacity
• in education – to be involved in decisions concerning their
education, to be able to participate in democratic schools
councils, to a participatory pedagogy where children can
actively engage in their education and to contribute to the
development of education policy and legislation
• in play and recreation – to be able to exercise choice in
their own play at home, in school, in hospitals, institutions
and public spaces
• in the media – to enable children to disseminate and share
their perspectives and issues of concern to a wider audience
• in the workplace – to be able to join trade unions and form
their own organisations to negotiate conditions of work
• in situations of violence – to information about the right to
protection and where to report safely, to access complaints
procedures to use when they experience violence.
ChAPTER SIx
in summary
Chapter seven
implementing article 12 in the public arena
Per-Anders Pettersson/ sAve the Children
Chapter seven
implementing article 12 in the public arena
within local communities
at the national level
in conflict and humanitarian reconstruction
119
In the wider community, at local and
national level, as well as in situations of
emergency and reconstruction, governments
and other authorities need to explore a
range of structures and mechanisms to
ensure children’s right to be heard in civil
and political spaces. In most countries,
children are absent from these spaces,
and lack the organisational support or
legal rights to create and occupy them on
their own. Ad hoc, one-off initiatives are
not suffcient to give effect to a sustained
and effective opportunity for children and
young people to inform or inﬂuence the
decisions that affect their lives. They will not
serve to redress the imbalance of power
which leads to children’s voices being
unheard or disregarded. Rather, children
need support to organise themselves,
to create opportunities to participate
through representation, and to engage
with policy- and decision-makers through
formally constituted routes. Very often, the
right to be heard is largely understood as
a consultative process in which children
are invited into adult spaces and given the
opportunity to respond to adult agendas.
This is obviously necessary. However, it
is also important to ensure that children
are able to create spaces where they can
develop their own agendas and priorities,
unmediated by the concerns of adults. The
following chapter elaborates a range of
possible approaches to building mechanisms
that facilitate both these opportunities.
within LoCaL
Communities
Article 12 includes the right of children
to play an active role within their local
communities. The Committee on the
Rights of the Child encourages the support
and development of initiatives, including
the growing number of local youth
parliaments, municipal children’s councils
and ad hoc consultations, where children
can voice their views in decision-making
processes. However, these structures for
formal representative participation in local
government should be just one of many
approaches to the implementation of
Article 12 at the local level, as they
only allow for a relatively small number
of children to engage in their local
communities.
A commitment to children’s participation
involves recognition of children as a source
of strength and opportunity for local
communities, rather than a ‘problem’ to be
resolved. All too often, public policy favours
such a defcit approach. For example,
punitive action will be targeted at young
people who commit crimes, without any
recognition of the social and economic
drivers of their behaviour. A participatory
approach would, instead, focus on working
with young people to identify the challenges
they face within their communities; for
example, the lack of opportunities for
employment and recreation, the lack of
safe places to meet, the negative attitudes
of older people towards them or the lack
of recognition of the contribution they can
make to their community. Respecting their
right to participate is not only an important
entitlement but will also beneft the
communities in which they live.
There are many models and opportunities
for children’s engagement. The approach
taken will depend on the nature of the
local community, the issues concerned,
the cultural environment and any existing
structure or mechanisms available.
Local authorities need to introduce and
support such initiatives, provide funding
where necessary, and take account of the
views that are expressed through these
mechanisms. Some approaches that might
be developed include:169
n Child-led initiatives and
organisations to enable children to
organise among themselves to identify
ChAPTER SEvEN
impLementinG artiCLe 12 in the puBLiC arena
169 It is not possible in this handbook to capture the full range of
potential activities in which children might be engaged. For more
information see UNICEF’s Children and Young People’s Participation
Resource Guide, which documents a comprehensive overview of
the available publications on children’s participation. http://www.
unicef.org/adolescence/cypguide/resourceguide.html
120
those issues of concern to them and to
determine how to take action to address
them. In Nepal, for example, child clubs
have organised themselves to tackle
issues as wide-ranging as discrimination
against girls in respect of education, early
marriage, and drunkenness in the home
and its impact on levels of violence and
harm to children. Networking among
child-led organisations should be actively
encouraged to increase opportunities
for shared learning and platforms for
collective advocacy.170
n representation on local
bodies with responsibility for
management of local issues.
Local committees with responsibility,
for example, for education, forest
management, housing, child protection
and water conservation and utilisation
should include representatives of childgoverned organisations. In addition,
children can play a key role in the
management and updating of data
and information related to their local
community. Their active engagement
will enable improved planning and
monitoring of the situation of children
and young people by local governments.
n targeted consultations on local
policy issues through which children
in general or specifc groups of children
can contribute their perspectives. For
example, children can be invited to
comment on the design of parks, school
playgrounds, health facilities or local
transport systems in order to ensure
more appropriate services. Children
with disabilities might be engaged to
undertake an audit of the accessibility of
local transport and buildings. Children
across a wide age range in a given
area might be involved in determining
how safe that area is for children and
what might be done to reduce the
dangers to which they are exposed.
Within a refugee camp, a children’s
forum might be established to monitor
children’s access to food, to shelter
and to protection from violence and
exploitation.
n politicians’ ‘surgeries’ or
consultations, which can create
additional opportunities for
communication. Local councillors or
members of parliament can set up
sessions specifcally for children, and
publicise where and when those sessions
will take place. They can also undertake
visits to schools and kindergartens in
order to hear directly from children.
170 J Rajbhandary, R hart and C Khatiwada, The Children’s Clubs of Nepal:
A Democratic Experiment, Save the Children, Kathmandu, 1997
EvERy ChILD’S RIGhT TO BE hEARD
121
chapter Seven • impLementinG artiCLe 12 in the puBLiC arena

CreatinG ‘ChiLdren’s Governments’ in india171
In 1999, UNICEF initiated children’s panchayats (local councils) in association with the government
of Rajasthan to see if children could become agents of change in their own development. Local
NGOs conducted a two-day workshop for the adult sarpanches (elected heads of the panchayat)
and panchayat members, who then returned to their villages to set up the children’s panchayats.
Children were asked to attend meetings where the sarpanches explained children’s rights and
the responsibilities that came with the rights, asking the children if they would like to form the
children’s government.
The children’s panchayat follows the government model of one-third of seats reserved for women,
with special representation for Scheduled Castes and people with disabilities. The children come
from different villages and meet once a month. “Right now there is one-third representation for girls in our
panchayat, just like the government. In our village, boys are considered to be future breadwinners and girls
are homemakers. When I think about it, I know this is not fair. I know the seats should be equally distributed
between boys and girls – perhaps that is something we can begin to change”, explains Mahindra Singh,
aged 15, the elected head of the children’s panchayat in Telora village. The children’s panchayats in
Ajmer district have been changing the children’s lives and the life of their community. In one village,
children decided that tobacco addiction was a problem. They asked the shopkeepers not to sell
tobacco to children who came to buy it for their fathers, because after a while children became
curious and tried it themselves. The adult panchayat supported this decision by levying a fne of
Rs 500 on every shopkeeper who sold tobacco to children. The money went to the children’s
panchayat. Children’s panchayats have been inspiring villages to plant trees, open libraries and ban the
use of plastic bags. Udaan (‘Flight’), a newspaper about children’s panchayats, is also written, edited,
designed and produced by children. To date, 200 children’s panchayats have been created in Rajasthan.
UNICEF hoped to create a model that could be implemented by the government of Rajasthan
throughout the state. After seeing the success of the project, the Director of Adult and Continuing
Education gave 35,000 adult education centres, which are present in every village, the task of helping
to create children’s panchayats.

reCoGnisinG ChiLdren as CitiZens in india
In 2006, the government of Karnataka in south-west India made it mandatory for all elected
members of the 5,653 gram panchayats (village councils) in the state to conduct special makkala
grama sabhas (children’s village assemblies) to ‘listen’ to their young citizens once a year and be
accountable to them. This was a cause for celebration among those who had been advocating for
children’s right for decades. In the past, children had been denied access to the grama sabhas, as
with most other public spaces. The frst grama sabha had been organised by Concerned for Working
Children (CWC)172 in Keradi, in the Udupi District of Karnataka in 2002.
The makkala grama sabha is essentially a meeting between members of the local government and
the young citizens who are its constituency.173 During the meeting, children speak directly with the
local government members. In addition to responding to children and reporting on actions taken,
the local government also reports on the status of children’s rights in the village.

171 Adapted from: Indian State Party Report to the Committee on
the Rights of the Child, CRC/C/93/Add.5, 16 July 2003
172 CWC is a pioneering organisation in child labour, children’s
rights and civil society participation with an emphasis on
children’s participation: www.workingchild.org
173 Kavita Ratna, ‘Children’s Impact on Governance’, Colloquium on
Children and Governance: holding States Accountable, 2009
122

exampLes oF LoCaLyounG peopLe’s initiatives
Child municipal councils in the occupied palestinian territory174
As part of a child-friendly cities initiative, hundreds of young people aged 12 to 17 have been elected
to child municipal councils in the West Bank and Gaza and are working with mayors and other city
offcials as well as parents, teachers, school offcials and neighbourhood committees to take positive
action in their communities. The councils are all the more remarkable, given the military occupation,
which restricts personal freedom, and the prevalence of violence. Despite the daily challenges they
face, the young people are working to improve their communities and have energised their peers
through projects that increase children’s protection and give them access to safe play, sports and
psychosocial support.
youth-run centres in albania175
As a result of a consultation with children and adolescents across Albania, Save the Children helped
establish youth-run centres in two economically depressed towns (Kuçova and Cërrik) with high
vulnerability to traffcking and some of the highest unemployment rates in the country. The centres,
which aim to provide life skills and other support, are run by a board of young people aged 14 to18,
with the help of paid coordinators and community advisory boards. The young people determine the
rules of operation and plan their activities. These are aimed at involving young people in addressing
important community issues and implementing service projects that engage community partners,
public offcials, the media and other young people. Members of the community, teachers, parents and
local government representatives strongly support the centres, which have built the capacities of
organisations, community leaders and parents. The two municipalities have signed a formal agreement
to take over full responsibility for centre operations, including staff salaries and other costs. Thus the
youth centres will be locally owned and sustainable without the support of Save the Children.
An evaluation in June 2008 revealed that young people from Kuçova had benefted from the centre’s
recreation opportunities, training, computers and other activities. The evaluation concluded that
these activities had helped with skills development, leading to these accomplishments:
• following a presentation on youth issues to the municipal authority by seven young people, two
young people were appointed to the mayor’s advisory committee.
• a group of nine young women developed community projects through a programme aimed at
empowering them to lead change. They lobbied the municipal authority to provide a budget to the
youth centre for such projects.
• the same group of young women went to the education director with complaints about teachers
selling exam passes and hiring themselves out as private tutors.
• Girls organised a big concert for the Day for the elimination of all forms ofviolence against
Women. They also ran a campaign (‘This hand Will Never hurtyou’) asking men and boys to
commit themselves to not hurting women.

174 Children’s Municipal Councils in the Occupied Palestinian Territory,
UNICEF MENA, 2005
175 Save the Children, Children Speak Out: Traffcking risk and resilience
in Southeast Europe, Albania Report, 2007
n Local youth parliaments and
municipal children’s councils to
create opportunities for participation in
decision-making. These bodies must be
managed by children and young people
themselves, with the active support of,
and facilitation by, adults. They need to
have formal and regular access to local
elected decision-making bodies and to
be respected and taken seriously at
that level. Many such bodies have been
set up, and in some cases they are
allocated budgets to spend on issues
of local concern.
EvERy ChILD’S RIGhT TO BE hEARD
123
chapter Seven • impLementinG artiCLe 12 in the puBLiC arena
n research to inform policy and
service provision, to be undertaken
by and with children. Children can
participate in identifying the gaps in
knowledge about a particular dimension
of their lives, developing the research
questions and methodology, undertaking
the surveys or interviews, analysing data
and formulating recommendations.
176 K Reddy, Children rejuvenate governance, Concerned for Working Children, 2002

ChiLdren’s researCh to improve aCCess and
LoCaLtransport176
Children in a village in India, with the support of the NGO Concerned for Working Children (CWC),
undertook a study into children’s concerns over access and transport in order to:
• enable children to access, obtain and manage information appropriately, so that they are
empowered to become researchers in their own right
• enable children to identify problems, access and analyse data, and use the resulting information to
take control of the issues they face and develop solutions to overcome them
• demonstrate that children are capable of participating effectively in all democratic processes and
that their participation can bring about structural changes in the community.
The study aimed to understand the transport, mobility and access issues of children from diverse
backgrounds and situations. The researchers were boys and girls aged 9 to 18 years, from socially and
economically marginalised groups. The study was conducted by 149 children, and 300 children, aged
6–18 years, were involved as respondents. The children designed their own methodology, and the
tools for the research, which included participatory rapid appraisal, observation mapping, interviews,
ﬂash card exercises, traffc counts, and focus group discussions.
The children encountered multiple problems in undertaking the study: managing the time
commitment alongside domestic chores and schooling, hostile attitudes on the part of many
community members, and the reluctance of parents to give permission to participate. The children
also lost their playtime, missed marriage parties, holidays, and opportunities to visit friends and
relatives. however, they said they had gained more than they had lost.
outcomes
The project gave children control over the research process as well as enabling them to have
ownership of the information they collected. The researchers formed their own organisations with
other children and worked with various stakeholders in the community to address the problems
identifed, such as getting footbridges installed, starting crèches, flling potholes, and blacktopping
roads. They are also negotiating with key stakeholders, including the gram panchayats (village
councils) and school authorities, to institutionalise children’s participation. They are in the process
of setting up makkala panchayats (children’s village councils) in each of the panchayats. They want to
ensure that children’s participation in decision-making and governance is permanent and offcial.
One of the key lessons arising from the process is that children’s participation in research and social
planning is not an end in itself, but rather it is a process that needs to be continuously re-evaluated
and to evolve according to their needs. Research and advocacy by children has successfully enabled
the active participation of children in democratic processes. They are leading the way in making
governments accountable.

124
n Local media initiatives to provide
opportunities for children to develop
their own local newspapers, run their
own radio programmes and contribute
to the mainstream media. These spaces
for children can be a means of enabling
them to share information on rights with
other children, raise awareness of issues
of importance for children and campaign
for changes they see as necessary.
n peer education to support children
to provide information, support and
awareness to other children. Examples
include initiatives where children take
literacy programmes out to children
working and living on the streets, and
health education programmes to share
information on HIV and AIDs or hygiene
and sanitation.

ChiLdren’s researCh in LoCaL Communities177
In Kundapura Taluk, Udupi district of Karnataka in south-west India, children have been involved in
research processes for many years. however, since 1998, they have been very actively involved in
conducting their own research, both qualitative and quantitative, on issues of concern to them. The
children of each panchayat produce a fve-year plan based on the data arising from the research.
Consequently, they are able to participate in meetings from village to state level, and to provide
reliable and relevant information substantiating and justifying their demands. As a result they have
been able to make effective interventions in their panchayats.
In 2002 a workshop was organised for members of Bhima Sangha (a union by, for and of working
children) and all the makkala panchayats,178 where they identifed the key indicators they needed for
regular updating of quantitative data. For this purpose, children were supported in developing a data
collection/updating tool. Now these updates are carried out once a month and the information covered
includes data about children out of school, disabled children, migrant children, children attending
Extension School and children who regularly attend the Bhima Sangha/makkala panchayat meetings.
As a result, children have acquired the skill to update information on a regular basis and monitor
child labour. Thanks to the availability of accurate data regarding individual children, it has also been
possible to monitor the impact of the programme on each child and address their individual needs.
some lessons learned
• children have shown that once they acquire the skills and tools of data collection and research
they are able to apply these to a variety of contexts and situations and use it to negotiate solutions
with adult organisations. For example, they successfully used collected data for negotiating the
closure of unlicensed liquor shops in Keradi.
• children can update information on certain indicators effciently because they have good
mechanisms/systems for accessing such information. For example, they closely interact with
school-going children and teachers and therefore they immediately come to know if any child is
leaving school or are likely to drop out.
• children can collect detailed and meticulous information on disabled children, as they interact with
them very closely. With the disability survey, children demonstrated that the quality of information
collected by them was not only accurate but also rich with the nuances of each individual case.
• time and time again children showed that they act on information immediately.they do not wait
for compilation, analysis or complicated procedures of decision-making, but feel an urgency to deal
with issues at once. As soon as they have the information they ensure that the problems are dealt
with speedily. Their reason for information-gathering is the need for action, lending a new meaning
to the term ‘Participatory Action Research’.

177 Adapted from a submission by Ms Nandana Reddy to the National
Council of Educational Research and Training, Participation of all
Children, Concerned for Working Children, undated
178 Children’s panchayats or councils
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ChiLdren’s media Can strenGthen their partiCipation
and CommuniCation179
A powerful example of how strengthening children’s life skills can change adult attitudes’ towards children
is Plan West Africa’s ‘Kids’ Waves’ programme, which involves thousands of children in ten countries in
the region participating in making radio programmes, increasing their capacity to communicate and to
organise in groups. Project evaluations in participant countries have demonstrated that the project has
contributed to a signifcant increase in awareness-raising on children’s rights among adults and young
populations in the target areas. Since its inception in 2004, the project has produced over 1,500 radio
shows on children’s rights since its inception, thanks to an established partnership with about 110 media
partners in the region. These fgures represent a substantial growth in reporting on children’s rights in the
West African media. While greater awareness and an increase in the number of broadcasts on children’s
issues are two important achievements, the most impressive results of the project were described by
the young participants themselves who, as part of the evaluation, reported an increase in their ability to
communicate, greater confdence, and the ability to stand up in public. Adults confrmed these impressions
and reported they had increased respect for and a different view of children’s abilities after having
witnessed their children taking part in the recording and broadcast activities.

‘my Future is my ChoiCe’ – namiBia’s LiFe sKiLLs proGramme
throuGh peer eduCation180
hIv is a very serious threat to young people in Namibia, with prevalence rates among adults aged
15 to 49 years of just below 20%. To counter this situation, My Future is My Choice (MFMC) was
designed to reach young people, through young people. It began in 1997 as a joint project between
the government of Namibia and UNICEF, called theyouth health and Development Programme
(yhDP). Project partners included the Ministries ofyouth and Sports, health and Social Services,
and Basic Education and Culture, the Nationalyouth Council, a number of NGOs, and religious
organisations, including the Catholic Church.
The objectives of the programme are to
• provide young people who are not having sexual intercourse with the skills to delay sexual intercourse
• prevent young people from becoming infected with hIv
• provide young people with facts about sexual health, pregnancy, sexually transmitted infections
(STIs) and hIv and AIDS
• improve the decision-making skills of young people
• improve communication between boys and girls, between friends, and between young people and
their parents and their community
• provide young people with the information and skills required to face peer pressure around the
use of non-prescription drugs and alcohol
• provide young people with the skills they require to make well-informed choices about their
sexual behaviour.
young people between the ages of 14 and 21 years receive a 20-hour training course providing the
information and life skills they need to make choices about their future. Using a highly interactive
approach, the programme focuses on life-skills training specifcally for the reduction of pregnancy
among teenagers, hIv and AIDS prevention, and the eradication of substance abuse and of rape.
Each MFMC graduate prepares a peer education ‘action plan’ to reach at least ten friends and/or to
become a member of an AIDS drama, role play, or debating club. Trained young people around the
country have, so far, reached over 100,000 of their peers (of whom 25% were not in school).

179 Children as active citizens: Addressing discrimination against children’s
engagement in political and civil society processes, Plan International,
2009
180 http://www.unicef.org/lifeskills/index_8798.html
126
n Children as monitors or auditors
of local services. Children can be
involved in investigating local hospitals
and health services, the police and
schools, to monitor whether they are
complying with the principles and
standards of the UNCRC. For example,
in a local borough in London, a locally
elected children’s parliament has
consulted with other children to develop
indicators against which to measure
whether hospitals and schools are
providing services that are accessible and
acceptable to children. They undertake
investigations to assess whether those
indicators have been met, and then
engage in a dialogue with the relevant
service providers to share their fndings
and explore what action might be taken
to improve outcomes.

ChiLdren LearninG aBout demoCratiC proCesses in india181
Nausar is a Classv student at a night school in Kuchil village, Rajasthan, India. he grazes cattle during
the day and studies in the evenings. Nausar’s school was set up in 1975 by the Barefoot College,
an NGO working as a centre of learning, and providing basic services to 100 villages and more
than 100,000 people spread over 500 square miles. Nausar is also a member of the Bal Sansad, an
actively functioning children’s parliament, which was conceived as a tool to make children aware of
the powers of a parliamentary democracy. It is also an early lesson in being a responsible citizen and
stresses the need for involvement in community affairs.via the Bal Sansad, children at the Barefoot
College’s night schools learn about democratic processes, the right to vote, the rule of law, the
power of a fair ballot and the need to choose candidates on merit rather than according to caste,
religion, creed or sex.
Periodic elections are held where all the children who form the electorate vote for members of the
parliament. They also elect a prime minister. Campaigning for this post has to be ‘clean’: one child
who tried to become prime minister by distributing sweets was severely criticised by his voter peers.
Only children registered as voters are allowed to vote or run for offce. Candidates are required
to know how to read and write. Nomination forms have to be accompanied by identity cards
and sanction letters from parents and village committees, who are enlisted to monitor elections.
The minimum age for candidacy is 11 years, and 38% of the seats are reserved for girls. Elected
representatives meet every two months in a nearby ruined fort. They select ministers for transport,
education, health, women and the environment. Adults function as civil servants and are answerable
to ministers of the Sansad. Apart from the founder of the Barefoot College, who holds a permanent
position as president, adults do not interfere in the functioning of the parliament except when help is
directly sought.
The MPs perform a whole host of duties. They see that teachers and students come to school on
time; they check that all schools have adequate supplies of teaching material; that there is enough
drinking water in the schools; that the premises are kept clean; that complaints about corporal
punishment, teacher tyranny, etc are attended to, and so on. They also report on their visits to
other night schools, attend meetings of their local village education committee, take matters up
with ministers and secretaries, budget expenses for the running of the government and ensure that
elections are conducted in all schools. They are entrusted with the task of enrolling children who are
out of school. Members of parliament are vested with the power to fre teachers who fail in their
duties, following an investigation based on the formal lodging of a complaint. Cabinet meetings also
deliberate on wider policy issues that have a bearing on everyday life. These may include health and
water issues. Children can lobby for solar power and water pumps in villages that do not have them.

181 http://infochangeindia.org/20040508228/Children/Features/Bal-Sansads-Members-of-Parliament-at-11.html
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It is important to exchange experiences
and good practice at the community
and grassroots levels and to
encourage networking among childled organisations in order to increase
opportunity for shared learning and
platforms for collective advocacy.
n Community dialogue. Involving
children in dialogue with other members
of the community can be an effective
approach to conﬂict resolution, building
resilience and reinforcing cultural and
community assets. One model for such
dialogue is the ‘Circles of Care’ project in
South Africa, in which local government
in partnership with local communities
build a circle of care around children
(or other vulnerable groups). It uses
a participatory approach to promote
resilience within each of those circles –
for example, the family, the school, the
community. It builds on the development
of strategies that are culturally relevant
and sensitive, and rooted in the
perspectives of children and young
people themselves as well as in those
of the adults who have responsibility
for them.

a ‘CirCLe oF Care’ projeCt in south aFriCa182
An initiative in South Africa employing the ‘circle of care’ model was undertaken to explore with
children and elders within their community, the impact of change wrought by the hIv and AIDS
pandemic, and approaches to addressing the problems they faced. While adults and children shared a
surprisingly similar perception of the extent to which the pandemic has served to weaken traditional
supports for children, they identifed different risks in cultural practices and strengths to draw on
to counteract the challenges. The children saw the risks as lying in the intolerance of elders to
discussing safe sex and hIv and AIDS, the overall negative community attitudes towards young
people, dangerous initiation practices, lack of opportunity for dialogue across generations and the
politicisation of culture. however, they felt that potential strengths lay in cultural practices which
could offer young people a sense of pride and identity, and spiritual connections with ancestors to
reinforce families and communities under stress, and in a culture that teaches safe sex.
The elders, on the other hand, felt that their role had been marginalised by government and modern
notions of human rights and democracy: they stressed that schools reduced children’s responsibilities
and downgraded elders’ authority, that mothers, who are more likely to be heads of households, no
longer sought advice from them, that young people no longer sought guidance before marriage, and
that the strategies for dealing with hIv andAIDSs had failed to acknowledge the role of the leaders
and undermined and marginalised them.
The opportunity for both groups to hear each other’s perspectives created a space where
joint consideration could be given to the construction of initiatives to address the community
challenges. It led to the creation of, for example, feeding centres run by the community leaders,
cultural monitoring mechanisms to ensure safe initiation practices, and youth-led cultural groups to
strengthen cultural identity and social connections between elders and young people.

182 P Cook and W White, ‘Risk, Recovery and Resilience: helping
young and old move together to support South African
communities affected by hIv/AIDS’, Journal of Intergenerational
Relationships,vol. 4, No. 1, 2006
128
at the nationaL LeveL
Governments need to establish mechanisms
for engaging with children at the national
level, in order that legislation, policy,
planning and service development and
implementation can reﬂect children’s own
concerns, experiences and suggestions.
The UN General Assembly affrmed its
recognition of the importance of such
mechanisms in its Omnibus Resolution
in November 2009, calling on all
governments to:
“Designate, establish or strengthen relevant
governmental structures for children, including,
where appropriate, ministers in charge of
child issues and independent ombudspersons
for children, have mechanisms in place for
allowing and promoting the involvement and
participation of children in the formulation and
implementation of public policies, in particular
those designed to meet national children and
adolescent goals and targets, and ensure
adequate and systematic training in the rights
of the child for professional groups working
with and for children.” 183
It is important to move beyond a view of
children’s participation in terms of one-off
public meetings, conferences and other
events, and towards systematic inclusion of
children’s participation in policy-making. They
are core stakeholders and their experience
and concerns will contribute to ensuring
that government policies are relevant and
effective, and will promote the best interests
of children. The voices of children have
increasingly become a powerful force in the
prevention of children’s rights violations.
Good practice examples are available, for
example, in the felds of violence prevention
in schools, combating child exploitation
through hazardous and extensive labour,
providing health services and education to
street children, and in the juvenile justice
system. Children should be consulted in
the formulation of legislation and policy
related to these and other problem
areas and be involved in the drafting,
development and implementation of
related plans and programmes.
The following section proposes some
key strategies which would help
governments create the infrastructure
and environment necessary to achieve
ongoing communication with children at
the national level.
n designate a lead authority to
coordinate implementation
of article 12 in all other
departments. Governments can
designate a central authority to have the
key responsibility for the implementation
of children’s rights across government,
together with focal points in all relevant
departments, with whom this authority
would liaise. The authority could take the
form of a ‘desk’ or division located in the
ministry which has primary responsibility
for children, with the role of coordinating
work in this area, as well as providing
training, guidance and support to all
government departments on how to
undertake effective participation with
183 UN General Assembly Agenda Item 65(a), ‘Promotion and protection
of the rights of children’, A/C.3/64/L.21/Rev.1, November 2009
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chapter Seven • impLementinG artiCLe 12 in the puBLiC arena
children. However, it is important that
it should not be seen as removing
responsibility from other departments
to take action to promote the right of
children to be heard within their own
sphere of activity. The authority would
need to establish direct contact with
child- and youth-led organisations, with
a view to developing and implementing
meaningful and effective participation of
children in all actions that affect them. It
could also evaluate and monitor progress
in achieving effective systems for
children’s participation. However, each
relevant government department should
also retain a responsibility for ensuring
children’s participation within its own
area of policy.
n institutionalise child participation
at all levels of government
decision-making. Mechanisms must
be introduced to institutionalise child
participation at all levels of relevant
government decision-making, including
legislative reform, policy-making, planning,
data collection and resource allocation.
Children can, for example, inform the
planning, design, implementation and
evaluation of processes such as National
Plans of Action and Poverty Reduction
Strategy Papers. In order to strengthen
the mechanisms to protect children from
online sexual abuse and exploitation,
it is essential to engage in a dialogue
with children as to how they use the
Internet, the degrees and nature of risks
they face, the strategies they adopt to
protect themselves and the policies
they would like to see put in place by
governments. Children are likely to
be far greater experts than adults in
understanding what happens in those
environments and their expertise needs
to be acknowledged when developing
laws and policies to reduce exposure
to risk. Children with disabilities will be
the greatest source of knowledge with
regard to the discrimination and social
exclusion they face, and can contribute
signifcantly towards understanding
the attitudinal, communication, physical
and mobility barriers that need to
be removed before they can realise
their rights.184 It is also worth noting
Article 4 of the UN Convention on
the Rights of Persons with Disabilities,
which introduces a requirement to
consult with representative organisations
of children with disabilities in these
processes. It is invaluable to translate
relevant government documents, such as
the National Plan of Action, into childfriendly language, to make it easier for
children to participate.
Such mechanisms might include:
• children’s parliaments
• youth advisory committees
• national or regional consultations
• dialogue with children through
electronic media
• focus groups on specifc issues
• collaboration with existing children’s
organisations.
184 General Comment No. 9, ‘The Rights of Children with Disabilities’, CRC/C/GC/9, February 2007
130

invoLvinG ChiLdren in poverty reduCtion
strateGy papers (prsps)185
Save the Children organised three large-scale consultations in ho Chi Minh City,vietnam,
involving more than 400 children and young people in national poverty planning or monitoring.
The consultations spanned the full PRSP cycle: from pre-PRSP development planning, to getting
feedback on the interim and draft PRSP, to a review of progress in implementing the country’s frst
PRSP. Children and young people highlighted the plight of the growing number of migrant families
in the capital who are not registered by the authorities and who have major problems accessing
healthcare, education and social welfare services. Their information helped change procedures to
allow unregistered migrants access to services more quickly. This was a major step forward in a
city where up to one-third of the population of some wards are ‘hidden’ unregistered migrants. The
consultations also resulted in two local government initiatives to involve children and young people
in offcial processes.
In honduras, Save the Children and local partner organisations facilitated fve consultations with
children and young people to shape their advocacy on the country’s PRSP. In the largest of the
consultations, involving 3,000 children across the country, children and young people’s experiences
and viewpoints on child labour were sought. The results persuaded government offcials to prioritise
child poverty in the PRSP and include targets within it on reducing child labour. A commitment was
also secured to use funds released by fulflment of the PRSP to fund education initiatives for child
workers. Children and young people’s views contributed to more joined-up policy-making, with child
labour policies linked to poverty reduction strategies.
In both these countries, children and young people have highlighted the social impact of poverty
– on family conﬂict, break-up, violence, drug abuse and the growth of gang culture. They have
sounded important warning bells about the long-term impact of poverty, and the negative way
it will shape communities around the world if it is not addressed urgently. Children and young
people’s participation has also highlighted the price children pay for poverty in terms of the damage
to their psychological health and outlook for the future. Signalling these problems and building an
understanding of them is an important step in achieving social change.

invoLvinG ChiLdren in advisinGthe Government oF
new ZeaLand186
The Prime Minister’syouth Advisory Forum was established in 1998. Modelled on other advisory
forums, such as the Business Advisory Council, the Prime Minister’syouth Advisory Forum aims to
provide 15 young New Zealanders, aged between 12 and 25, with the opportunity to meet three
times a year with Cabinet Ministers, including the Prime Minister. The Forum was initiated by the
Minister ofyouth Affairs and received an enthusiastic response, with more than 230 young people
applying to be members. The selection criteria aimed to establish a Forum with a cross-section of
young people from different ethnic groups, a variety of geographical, rural and urban backgrounds,
and with different educational, employment and life experiences. The Forum’s aim is to provide a
system where a group of children and young people can speak directly and frankly to the Prime
Minister of the day about issues that concern them. Members’ views can be sought on all matters
concerning the government, not just issues considered to be relevant to children and young people.
During the Forum, members identify the issues for discussion and the Ministers they will meet for
the next meeting. Ministers can also set topics for discussion.

185 K O’Malley, Children and Young People Participating in PRSP
Processes: Lessons from Save the Children’s experiences, Save the
Children, London, 2004
186 New Zealand periodic report to the Committee on the Rights
of the Child, CRC/C/93/Add.4, March 2003
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ChiLdren’s partiCipation in LeGaL reForm proCesses
In peru in 2006, the National Congress approved the Law No. 28914 to create a Special
Commission for the review/revision of the National Code of Children and Adolescents (CERCNA)
in order to update the legislation with the reality, needs and rights of childhood. Children were
active participants in this process. Children from different child-led organisations participated in
the Commission, together with the parliamentarians, and authorities connected with the issues of
childhood, such as Ministries of Women and Social Development, Education, health, the Attorney
General, the Ombudsman for Children, and the police. In addition to participating in the meetings
of the Commission, children also presented their own proposals that were based on meetings and
consultations that they carried out with other children at local, regional and national levels, and they
are advocating for these proposals to be included in the CERCNA.
In venezuela, children’s organisations participated in the process of reform of the Constitution.
Children presented their proposals to the relevant commissions. This experience permitted children to
interact with parliamentarians in the various commissions, and to present and defend their proposals.

the nationaL adoLesCents andyouth Forum in KaZaKhstan187
UNICEF collaborated with the government of Kazakhstan to engage with children and young
people in policy dialogue. Over 150 young people, democratically elected from all of the country’s
16 regions and representing a diversity of backgrounds, gender and social status, gathered for a
forum to draw up recommendations for a youth policy. It was preceded by a six-month ‘bottom
up’ consultative process surveying over 2,000 children, adolescents and young people aged 10 to
24 years across Kazakhstan – from cities and villages, from urban and rural areas, girls and boys,
children with disabilities, children living in orphanages – to identify their issues of concern, dreams
and possible ways to solve their problems. This process was facilitated by 26 talented and committed
youth facilitators who conducted 70 consultations with hundreds of their peers. The facilitators
were trained by UNICEF. In addition, UNICEF trained young video journalists who have creatively
documented the entire process and produced documentaries reﬂecting the issues that are of major
importance to the country’s youth. The consultations led to the production of an outcome document
representing the views, opinions and recommendations of the adolescents and young people. The
recommendations made by the representatives of the young people prioritised issues they had
identifed during the regional consultations. These were: education, health services, healthy lifestyles,
employment, psychosocial issues, stigma and discrimination, and leisure.

187 UNICEF Adolescent Development and Participation Unit, Newyork, 2010
132
n Create a supportive environment
for the creation of child-led
organisations. In many countries
throughout the world, children are now
actively involved in developing their
own forums, such as working children’s
unions, student unions, parliaments, clubs
and other bodies. Governments need
to support these developments and can
play an active role in ensuring that there
is a legal framework conducive to the
establishment of child-led organisations.
They can provide fnancial support, and
also give recognition to such bodies by
establishing clear guidelines on how the
views presented by children through
such bodies will be taken into account in
the formal political process and ensuring
that children are provided with adequate
responses in relation to their proposals.

ChiLdren inFLuenCe Government poLiCy on ChiLd LaBour
in yemen
The Children’s Parliament inyemen has been meeting over a number of years to focus the attention
of the Government ofyemen on children’s concerns and priorities and to help them improve the
reality of children’s day-to-day lives. In 2007, its focus was child labour.188
Following two days of training on communication skills and report-writing, provided by a supporting
NGO, the members of the Children’s Parliament met with a series of senior government ministers
and offcials, including from the ministries of interior, justice, health, social affairs and labour, and
fnance, and the International Labour Organization, who discussed with members of the Children’s
Parliament matters concerning child labour, the legal framework, and the programmes being
developed to address the issue of child labour. The children had the opportunity to question and
challenge the government representatives on the information provided, and also to visit some of
the facilities provided by the government for rehabilitation of working children. After consideration
of all the information provided, the members of the Children’s Parliament proposed detailed
recommendations, including:
• legislative reform, implementation, monitoring and enforcement on child labour
• rights-respecting facilities for street children
• awareness-raising on the right of children to protection from harmful child labour
• greater level of support for parents to enhance their standard of living
• equality of access to education for all children
• training on children’s rights for all staff working with children
• free access to healthcare for all children, including improved access to healthcare for children in
detention and on the streets, assigned paediatricians to every school, and awareness-raising and
training on sanitation, hygiene, frst aid and the dangers of smoking and chewing qat.

188 yemen: Report of Children’s Parliament on ‘Child Labour’, 2007,
http://www.crin.org/resources/infoDetail.asp?ID=14774&ﬂag=news
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chapter Seven • impLementinG artiCLe 12 in the puBLiC arena
n involve children in monitoring
implementation of their rights.
Children can play an important role in
monitoring the realisation of their rights.
It is not suffcient to rely on data or
evidence produced by adults alone, nor
to make recommendations for action
to strengthen the implementation of
rights without regard to children’s own
perspectives. Children can be involved
in agreeing indicators and monitoring
the implementation of all the rights
enshrined in the UNCRC, including
within the family and alternative family
environments, and the impact of their
participation on policy, court decisions
and programme implementation. They
can be directly involved in research both
as respondents and researchers.189

ChiLdren’s voiCes in monitorinGthe juveniLe justiCe system
in the phiLippines190
Efforts to make the Philippines juvenile justice system child sensitive have been extensive. They have
involved legislative reform to ensure that children are legally represented and entitled to be heard
in judicial proceedings, and that they are afforded the right to information to understand what is
happening around them, what they are accused of, and the options available to them. They have
the right to tell their side of the story. Adults are required to facilitate the expression of children’s
thoughts, opinions and feelings. Children are also entitled to participate in rehabilitation and
reintegration, particularly in planning their future and actively implementing the plans that are
drawn up. These commitments are supported by provision of training for the National Police,
National Bureau of Investigation, lawyers and judges on child-sensitive means of investigation and
judicial processes.
are these laws enforced?
In 2002, the Programme on Psychosocial Trauma and human Rights Center for Integrative Studies
and Development – University of the Philippines and the Consortium for Street Children (UK)
conducted regional and national workshops and consultations with street children, those in
detention and rehabilitation, NGOs, government bodies, judges, lawyers, and law enforcers who were
involved in the country’s juvenile justice system, to fnd out whether the intended outcomes were
being achieved.
The children stated that most of the time the law was usually ignored by the apprehending offcers,
lawyers and judges. Children were often verbally and physically abused during apprehension and
were placed in cells together with adults. There were cases of sexual abuse, torture and violence
against children while in detention. It was found that “there is a complete absence of any attempt
to enforce the law”.191 A nationwide research was then conducted on the situation of children in
conﬂict with the law, which found that 50.9% of the respondents were in cells together with adults,
44% had to sleep on the ﬂoor, 39.7% had no sleeping paraphernalia, and 30% had only blankets.192
There were gaps in the implementation of the laws during apprehension, detention and rehabilitation
of the children. The children also pointed out that the juvenile justice system is punitive instead
of promoting rehabilitation. The workshops revealed the signifcance of children’s participation in
ensuring the implementation of the laws. Their experiences are crucial in identifying the gaps and
making recommendations on implementing laws that uphold and protect the rights of children.

189 See for example, http://www.unicef.org/adolescence/cypguide/
resourceguide_res_assess.html
190 Cited in the Philippines National Framework for Child
Participation, 2000–2025, Council for the Welfare of Children,
National Early Childhood Care and Development Coordinating
Council
191 People’s Recovery Empowerment Development Assistance
(PREDA) Minors in Jail: Case Studies, The Philippines (September
2002), 2003
192 Pilipino Americanyouth Organization (PAyO), Youth in Detention:
Issues and Challenges, A Nationwide Survey, 1996, p. 30
134
n involve children in the reporting
process to the Committee on the
rights of the Child. In many countries,
NGOs, including national alliances on
children’s rights, have involved children in
the process of parallel reporting under
the UNCRC, including their presence
during pre-session country briefngs
with the Committee.194 Children’s
engagement in this process strengthens
their capacity to play an active role in
identifying human rights aspects in need
of further attention and monitoring
the implementation of concluding
observations of the Committee on
the Rights of the Child at the national

monitorinG within sChooLs193
In denmark, pupils evaluate teachers on a systematic basis. In a study of one school, it was found
that everyone was aware of the legislation that said that pupils must evaluate the teaching and
education planning. All teachers were evaluated by their pupils twice a year; the teacher read the
evaluations, summarised them and discussed them with the class, stating how things would change.
These would also be summarised by departments, together with what teachers and pupils had
agreed as a result of the evaluations. The process was carried out on the Internet, which was seen
to make the process more fun. Planning questionnaires were also put out to pupils on the Internet,
asking about the environment, work places, classrooms, timetable and options. In addition, the Danish
Ministry of Education has published a document called How is it today? to help schools monitor
democracy. It provides a set of standards against which to measure whether schools are implementing
their obligations to respect the child’s right to be heard effectively. It expects schools to address the
questions: Democracy for whom? For the school? For the municipality? For schools? For teachers?
Are schools enacting democracy in their teaching methods? Do procedures allow democracy?
The document sets out 11 ‘rules’, regarding the following matters:
• the overall framework and philosophy
• the councils and their advisory function
• that pupils should be represented on the school councils
• that representatives are chosen by pupils themselves
• that pupils should participate in leadership of the institution
• that pupils do not have voting rights on fnancial matters
• that pupils are represented on formal councils but not pedagogic councils
• that pupils’ councils should have resources, a room or offce if possible
• that pupils’ overall inﬂuence and competence should be stipulated in the legislation
• that there should be time for discussion of subjects of interest to all pupils
• that all institutions should have a contact person for school councils in the school.
In sweden, evaluation in schools has two main strands: evaluation of the school and teachers by the
pupils; and evaluation by the school of the extent and effect of pupil participation. These often come
together in the use of questionnaires with pupils, generated by the pupils themselves, or generated
by various working groups of the management of the school. In one school, for example, the impact
of the establishment of teacher–pupil work teams was evaluated by questionnaire each year, with the
pupils being generally positive about the integrated approach to learning. Each separate course was
also formally evaluated.

193 Adapted from: L Davies and G Kirkpatrick, The Euridem Project,
Children’s Rights Alliance for England, London, 2000
194 For detailed guidance on how to involve children in the
reporting process, see J Miller, Children as Change Agents: A Review
of Child Participation in Periodic Reporting on the Convention on the
Rights of the Child, Worldvision, Ontario, 2007
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chapter Seven • impLementinG artiCLe 12 in the puBLiC arena
level. However, the Committee also
encourages governments to facilitate
the involvement of children more
directly in the periodic review process
of the UNCRC. It proposes that they
“… actively involve children in the periodic
review process of the [UN]CRC. It also
urges children to play an active role in
identifying human rights aspects in need
of further attention and monitoring the
implementation of concluding observations
at the national level.” 195 It encourages
NGOs to continue to engage children
directly in the process of shadow
reporting, and encourages the presence
of children during pre-sessional
country briefngs.196
195 Committee on the Rights of the Child, Report on the
43rd Session, September 2006, Day of General Discussion,
Recommendations, para. 31
196 Ibid., para. 34
197 J Doek, former Chair, Committee on the Rights of the Child,
http://www.unicef.org/rightsite/364_613.htm

a modeL For eFFeCtive monitorinG197
“As soon as the Committee receives a report by a State Party, it should invite a representative
group of children and young persons from that country to meet with the country Rapporteur – the
member of the Committee who leads the discussion with the Government delegation and directs
the drafting of the Concluding Observations. The purpose of this meeting would be to obtain direct
information from the children about their concerns and problems, and to hear their suggestions
for possible solutions. This initial meeting should be followed by an in-country visit; in particular,
the Rapporteur should observe schools and institutions in both rural and urban areas. These
visits would not serve as offcial fact-fnding missions; rather, they would give children frst-hand
information about the process of reporting and monitoring and would also clarify their role in that
process, in addition to exposing them more directly to the UNCRC and its implementation. The
information the Rapporteur gathers from the visit can subsequently be used by the Committee in its
recommendations to the government.
“Experience has shown that a follow-up meeting with the government delegation to review
the Committee’s recommendations after 6 to 12 months can help to raise awareness of the
recommendations and to support actions undertaken to put them into practice. Ensuring that the
Rapporteur meets with the same group of children that participated in the initial meeting would
make these follow-up meetings more effective. By involving these children in the follow-up process,
both governments and the Committee would be meeting their responsibilities to increase children’s
exposure to the UNCRC. This, in turn, might increase the likelihood that governments will honour
their commitments.
“While a number of practical considerations – including time, money and political will – certainly
hamper the UNCRC’s implementation and the establishment of new monitoring mechanisms, the
world community cannot shirk its responsibility to protect children. Governments have repeatedly
agreed to safeguard children’s rights, frst by signing and ratifying the UNCRC and, more recently,
in a series of complementary meetings and agreements. Key meetings have included the 2002
United Nations General Assembly Special Session on Children and the 2008 Third World Congress
on Sexual Exploitation of Children; most recently, the countries on the human Rights Council
have established a working group to determine the feasibility of a third optional protocol that
would create a formal mechanism for individuals and groups to submit complaints directly to the
Committee. These proposals may sound like optimistic dreams, but sometimes dreams are needed to
inspire the achievement of miracles. And children love miracles.”

136

uK Government diaLoGue with ChiLdren:
‘Get ready For Geneva’ 198
The preparation process for the UK’s 3rd and 4th consolidated reports to the Committee on the
Rights of the Child was begun with a conference to which young people, NGOs and government
offcials were invited. The government then commissioned a consortium of NGOs to gather the
views of children and young people on the implementation of the UNCRC, as well as a consultation
with NGOs on their own views.199
In England, the project was called ‘Get Ready for Geneva’ and involved nearly 1,400 children in an
online survey and focus groups with nearly 350 children.200 It also undertook an analysis of over 50
consultations with children that had been carried out over the previous fve years. The project was
run by four groups of children; each person had a specifc role within their group. The groups were:
• steering group – helped to make all the important decisions about Get Ready for Geneva
• website and communications team – made sure they had a good website and everything
they wrote was easy to understand
• Children’s rights investigators – visited groups of children across the country to investigate
the state of children’s rights
• Children’s rights champions – pushed for children’s human rights to be respected in the areas
where they live. There was also a dedicated team of adult staff working on the project, including
an experienced social researcher. Their role at that stage of the project was to support children to
gather and present the evidence about how well children’s rights are being respected in England.
The project designed seven surveys on the themes of education, respect, freedom, family and friends,
crime, health and safety, and play. They ran a different survey every month on the Get Ready for
Geneva website so that children across England could take part. For the focus groups, they made
sure that they included children, for example, of different ages and ethnicity, children with disabilities,
traveller children, young refugees and asylum-seekers, children in trouble with the law, both boys and
girls, and children living in poverty, or facing violence or exploitation. The results were put together in
a report which was submitted to the Committee on the Rights of the Child.

198 http://www.getreadyforchange.org.uk/campaigns/reports
199 UK State Party Report to the Committee on the Rights of the
Child, CRC/C/GBR/4, February 2008
200 ‘Get ready for Geneva’, submission to the Committee on
the Rights of the Child, Children’s Rights Alliance for England,
London, 2008
EvERy ChILD’S RIGhT TO BE hEARD
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chapter Seven • impLementinG artiCLe 12 in the puBLiC arena

ChiLd partiCipation in the unCrC reportinG proCess
in aFGhanistan201
“We want police to protect us and not to beat us. We want teachers to guide us and not make us work for
them. We want leaders to add value to our resources and not to consume them for personal beneft.” This
was the demand of a child while participating in the consultations to incorporate Afghan children’s
voices in the UNCRC reporting process.202
A group of 326 Afghan children from various regional, ethnic and religious backgrounds participated
in consultations organised by Save the Children and UNICEF on UNCRC reporting in 2008.
They were drawn from all eight provinces of Afghanistan. The process involved 19 sub-national
consultations. The children were given reading material beforehand to ensure that they were fully
informed about the processes, and efforts were made to make it an inclusive and participatory
exercise. Specifc consultations were organised with girls, children with disabilities, children from
minority communities, orphans, and children in conﬂict with law. The consultation process was
followed by formulation of policy recommendations.
The primary concerns of the children were rooted in the country’s social and political state. They
included child kidnapping, drug abuse and sexual abuse, and the general issue of insecurity was
commonly raised. It was clear that these concerns had a direct impact on children’s psychological
and intellectual growth. It was argued that there was a major need for adequate protection for child
prisoners in the legal system: there were, for example, reports of child prisoners being chained. The
children talked about the need for freedom from abuse from teachers, supervisors, police, army and
employers, they demanded schools, education material, shelter, food and also, in some cases, work to
be able to survive. The children living in special homes felt that peace is a priority, but education and
health services were also seen as essential. “We can neither wait nor compromise with quality of their
delivery”, was the comment of one child. The children from the minority hindu groups of Jalalabad
wanted to emphasise their political identity as Afghans and sought constitutional protection against
any kind of discrimination in their daily lives. It was concluded that some of the issues such as early
marriage, and child-beating by parents, could be dealt with only by engaging with society and bringing
a change in social traditions. At the same time, it was essential to ensure that adequate stringent
provisions against the violators were incorporated in the constitution.
Following the consultation, a list of thematic issues was prepared and the agencies needed to support
the process of bringing about change were identifed.

201 See the link for a concept paper on ‘CRC initial report process,
establishment of CRC reporting mechanism and capacity
building of government employees’, http://www.mfa.gov.af/
Documents/Treaty-reporting/Documents/Afghanistan_CRC_
Reporting_Process.pdf
202 Remark by a child in a two-day consultation process organised
by Save the Children and UNICEF on UNCRC reporting in the
year 2008
203 See G Lansdown, Promoting children’s participation in democratic
decision-making, UNICEF, 2002, for guidance on involving children
in conferences and high-level events
n support children’s participation in
national and international forums.
Children can play a key role in national
regional and international conferences.
Recent examples include the 2002 UN
Special Session on Children, the regional
consultations for the 2005 UN Study
on Violence against Children, the 2009
World Congress on Sexual Exploitation
of Children, and the involvement of
children in the J8 sessions, which have
been organised by UNICEF alongside
the G8 meetings of heads of state.
Participation at this level enables
children to bring their concerns to the
world’s leaders and seek to ensure
that they are not marginalised in the
face of other powerful and competing
lobbies. Governments should take
active measures to facilitate children’s
involvement in relevant events.203
138

internationaLyouth advisory ConGress on onLine saFety
and seCurity204
“I have always been told not to talk to strangers that I meet on the street, but nobody told me not
to talk to strangers on the Internet.” (boy)
“Restrictions alone do not work. Freedom to use the Internet in combination with information on
the risk and other protection measures is the best combination.” (boy)
“young people listen to other young people; therefore youth should be involved in developing safety
messages on the Internet.”
–views of girls and boys expressed during the Congress
The frst Internationalyouth Advisory Congress on Online Safety and Security took place in the UK
on 16–21 July 2008. It brought together 148 girls and boys aged 14 to17 years from 19 countries
to share their experiences and recommendations. The congress was organised by the UK Child
Exploitation and Online Protection Centre, supported by thevirtual Task Force, an international
alliance of law enforcement agencies addressing child sexual exploitation.
In preparation for the congress, 764 children and adolescents aged 11 to 17 years from different
parts of the world participated in an online poll. Some of the fndings were:
• almost 40% of the respondents said they rarely speak about what they do online with their
parents/guardians, because they don’t seem to take an interest.
• Seventy-three per cent said they have access to the Internet whenever they want, with no
restrictions on what they view.
• forty-four per cent had come across images or content they thought were inappropriate for
their age.
Participants in the congress met with representatives from governments, industry, law
enforcement, education and the media. A creative discussion on online security took place, and the
adolescents gave concrete suggestions for improving it. The young people presented a number of
recommendations at the conclusion of the meeting, including:
• showing of flms on online safety on television, on the sides of buses, on billboards and in online
pop-ups
• a mandatory and universal browser-based ‘report abuse’ button on the toolbar of every browser
and on all social networking sites. It would require only two clicks to report a problem, without
even leaving the web page
• an international industry advisory panel on online safety, made up of youth and industry leaders, to
report current issues in their countries to government authorities
• pressure from governments for the media and the online industry to promote safety
• proactive education of teachers, elected offcials, parents and other adults to enhance their
understanding of online safety issues so they can pass on their wisdom to other adults and to
young people
• replacement of the term ‘child pornography’ in the Uncrc with ‘child abuse images’
• expansion of the interpretation of article 6 of the Uncrc (relating to survival and development)
to cover both the online and the ofﬂine ‘worlds’
• global youth advisory congress online forum accessible to registered users, where individuals can
post their views, opinions and experiences.
The congress was the beginning of a process that resulted in a Children’s andyoung Persons’
Online Charter. It was used as the basis for a submission to the UN in preparation for the Omnibus
Resolution on the Rights of the Child, adopted by the General Assembly in 2009.205

204 A complete summary of the youth delegates’ recommendations
can be found at www.iyac.net/corporate/press.htm
205 The Rights of the Child, A/RES/64/146
EvERy ChILD’S RIGhT TO BE hEARD
139
chapter Seven • impLementinG artiCLe 12 in the puBLiC arena
in ConFLiCt and
humanitarian
reConstruCtion
“There can be no global security without
respect for children. We have to be more
than just observers of children’s suffering,
we have to be partners with them in
their struggles.” Landon Pearson, former
Canadian Senator
“I stayed alone, with no parents. I used to
think about the past. It was diffcult to forget
what had happened to me in the bush. I felt
alone. No one wanted to stay with me, to
share with me. I then joined an association
and began to fnd peace within myself. My
family came back to me. I have friends and
I have learned from others. These days
I am fne. I know what to do at the right
time and right place.” Former abducted child,
northern Uganda206
The Committee emphasises that Article
12 does not cease to apply in situations of
crisis or in their aftermath. It recommended,
following the Day of General Discussion in
2008, that children affected by emergencies
should be encouraged and enabled to
participate in analysing their situation and
future prospects.207 In order to ensure that
this happens, governments are encouraged
to introduce and support mechanisms
which enable children, in particular
adolescents, to play an active role in both
post-emergency reconstruction and postconﬂict resolution processes.
in emergencies and reconstruction
Humanitarian agencies have established
principles and standards to guide emergency
work which defne their obligations and
commitments in relation to the people
affected by disasters.208 Some of these
standards call for greater accountability of
relief agencies in protecting and fulflling
the civil rights of people in emergencies.
Although the standards do not explicitly
address children, the provisions of the
UNCRC, and in particular, Article 12, do
place clear obligations to ensure that they
are applied equally to children.209They
include recognition of the need to respect
disaster victims as dignifed human beings,
not just as objects of charity, recognise
the importance of information to affected
populations, consult with affected people
about relief and reconstruction programmes,
introduce feedback and complaint
mechanisms, and support and enable
people to form their own associations.
Work with children in emergencies has
demonstrated the importance of these
principles, and suggests that the application
of the following guidelines is necessary
not only to ensure respect for the right of
children to be active participants in such
circumstances, but also to ensure the most
positive outcomes for their recovery.210
206 Cited in C Feinstein, A Giertsen and C O’Kane, ‘Children’s
participation in armed conﬂict and post-conﬂict peace building’,
in B Percy-Smith and N Thomas (eds) A Handbook of Children and
Young People’s Participation, Routledge, London, 2010
207 Committee on the Rights of the Child, Day of General
Discussion on ‘The Right of the Child to Education in Emergency
Situations’, Recommendations, 49th Session, 19 September 2008
208 For example, The Sphere Project’s ‘humanitarian Charter’, the
International Committee of the Red Cross’s (ICRC’s) Code
of Conduct, ‘Do No harm’, the UN Inter-Agency Standing
Committee’s (IASC’s) Operational Guidelines on Human Rights in
Natural Disasters and the Emergency Capacity Building Project’s
The Good Enough Guide
209 C O’Kane and C Feinstein, The Participation of Children and
Young Children in Emergencies: A guide for relief agencies, UNICEF,
Bangkok, 2007
210 See, for example, Jo Boyden and Gillian Mann, Children’s Risk,
Resilience and Coping in Extreme Situations, background paper
to the Consultation on Children in Adversity, Oxford,
9–12 September 2000, and Christopher Lowry (2000) Mental
Health Interventions For War-Affected Children, taking into account
children’s resilience and coping in armed conﬂict, paper presented
by C Lowry (Director, More Than Bandages Programme/Au Delà
des Pansements, Médecins Sans Frontières-Canada) at ‘Children
in Adversity’ consultation
140
n involve children as social agents
in their own right, with the capacity
to inﬂuence their situation positively.
They should be acknowledged and
accepted as strategic partners, with
recognition of their role as essential
resources for community development
rather than as problems. Their views
should be elicited in the assessment,
design, implementation, monitoring
and evaluation of programmes.
Supporting children’s wellbeing requires
recognition that children need not
only special protection, but that they
have valid insights into their wellbeing,
solutions to their problems and a role
in implementing those solutions. There
is a growing body of evidence of the
signifcant contribution that children are
able to make in conﬂict situations, postconﬂict resolution and reconstruction
processes following emergencies.211
n recognise children’s competences
and strengths, and focus on
regenerating resilience as understood by
those children and their elders. Through
participatory approaches educators
and development workers can be
encouraged to learn about children’s
own perspectives and understandings
of adversity and their ideas about
coping and resilience. Children need
opportunities to talk about issues of
concern to them and to be involved in
wider issues of immediate local concern.
This will help them to learn problemsolving skills and to gain a sense of

why shouLd reLieF aGenCies promote the partiCipation
oF ChiLdren in emerGenCies?
• Children have a right to participate – the same rights apply in emergencies as in other times.
• Children have valuable capacities and are already making important contributions in all stages
of emergency situations. Their participation improves the quality and reach of emergency work.
• Children know their communities and have access to some information and knowledge
that adults do not have. They can provide valuable feedback on relief efforts utilising the strong
connections and networks that exist between themselves.
• Children can protect, provide emotional support and care for other children, with
whom they are often best placed to build rapport and trusting relationships. Children can fnd it
easier than adults to understand other children.
• Children are willing to help and to participate and their enthusiasm and commitment
provides an invaluable resource in the reconstruction process.
• Children have their own needs and concerns. Boys and girls of different ages have to be
included in consultations to ensure that humanitarian agencies address their priorities.
• participation brings benefts to children, families and communities. It contributes to
children’s education and development, and helps with the healing process. It helps children to
protect themselves from abuse and exploitation. Not involving children undermines them by
sending the message to the adult community and decision-makers that it is all right to exclude
children from decision-making, information, consultations and contributing – that children have no
role in the public sphere. Children who are informed about relief efforts are better able to survive
and to protect themselves
• Children will be peace-builders, and makers and shapers of the new communities emerging
post-conﬂict.

211 C O’Kane and C Feinstein, The Participation of Children and Young Children
in Emergencies: A guide for relief agencies, UNICEF, Bangkok, 2007
EvERy ChILD’S RIGhT TO BE hEARD
141
chapter Seven • impLementinG artiCLe 12 in the puBLiC arena
control over their lives. And sharing
grief with others may help children to
overcome their sense of loss. It can also
serve to enhance their innate resilience,
and provide them with strength.
n Focus on rebuilding a sense of
community through the restoration
of normal everyday routines and
activities, for example, rebuilding
family and community networks, reestablishing productive capacity, providing
opportunities for recreation and play,
and developing mechanisms for justice
and retribution. Children need access
to cultural activities, games, sports and
recreational activities which enable them
to relax, have fun and cooperate with
one another.
n provide safe space for interaction
with peers and promote positive
opportunities for girls, boys and youth
to come together and to organise
themselves and their own programmes.
There is considerable evidence that
social support from peers can enhance
children’s resilience. Furthermore,
through collective organisation
children can learn self-protection,
self-representation and self-advocacy.
Programmes should encourage children’s
active participation in decision-making,
problem-solving, team-building and
peer-mentoring to reinforce individual
attributes in children that contribute
to self-esteem, self-effcacy and coping.
For example, children in refugee camps
can be encouraged to contribute to
their own safety and wellbeing through
the establishment of children’s forums.
Support needs to be given to enable
children to establish such forums,
while ensuring that their operation is
consistent with children’s best interests
and their right to protection from
harmful experiences.
n understand that relief and
reconstruction efforts have a
psychosocial as well as a physical
dimension. Local people, including
children, need to defne their own needs,
and reconstruction efforts should focus
on meeting those needs and recreating
the necessary social spaces for social
healing to take place. Children must
be understood as agents in their own
recovery, if relief efforts are not to
increase their feelings of powerlessness
and dependence. Children’s participation
helps them to regain control over
their lives, contributes to rehabilitation,
develops organisational skills and
strengthens a sense of identity –
although care needs to be taken to
protect children from exposure to
situations that are likely to be traumatic
or harmful. Opportunities for creative
forms of expression such as art, drama,
story-telling, play, poetry, music, puppetry
and other cultural activities can play a
vital role in healing processes.
n recognise that children are not a
homogenous group, and responses
to their situation in emergencies, as in
any other context, must be considered
with due regard to their age, gender,
location, culture, social class, economic
status and ethnicity. Adolescents should
not be grouped with young children as
they have different emotional, physical,
psychological and social needs which
have to be identifed and respected.
Adolescent girls and boys have distinct
experiences during emergency situations;
gender norms will inﬂuence both the
vulnerabilities and the capacities of
adolescents during different types and
phases of emergencies.
n recognise that psychosocial needs
in war-affected communities are
long term, and efforts to involve
children must provide for their ongoing
participation.
142
n Base relief, emergency and
development processes on an
accurate assessment of capacities
and vulnerabilities, undertaken with
the full participation of girls, boys, women
and men of the affected communities.
All information should be disaggregated
according to gender and age, as well as
other social variables.
n ensure efforts are nondiscriminatory. No child should be
discriminated against because of their
gender, ethnicity, religion, disability or
nationality. Monitoring efforts should
include a focus on which children are
being included or excluded in relief and
emergency efforts.
n psychosocial programmes for waraffected and displaced children
should focus on schools/informal
learning places, on the grounds that
education is less likely than a mental
health intervention to be viewed
negatively and that a structured, routine
learning environment provides a sense of
stability and continuity, which is vital for
children’s psychosocial adjustment.
n develop child protection
approaches that build on
local resources and local
understandings of girls, boys,
women and men. Children need
security and safety to enable them to
achieve healthy development even
in emergencies. This can be achieved
through the creation of a ‘protective
environment’, which should include the
provision of services, the establishment
of supportive systems and networks,
the guarantee of security and laws,
and the existence of policies to enable
their implementation. It is important
to recognise that as well as benefts
212 C O’Kane and C Feinstein, The Participation of Children and Young Children
in Emergencies: A guide for relief agencies, UNICEF, Bangkok, 2007

what ChiLdren and younG peopLe have done at diFFerent
aGes in reConstruCtion eFForts212
Children aged 5–10 years: making toys for younger children
Children aged 9–12 years: providing frst aid; playing with and supporting children who lost family
members; talking with and supporting friends who were sad; collecting food and rations for old
people; helping prepare food; helping to clean camps for internally displaced persons (IDPs); making
representation to adults
Children aged 12: teaching younger children; caring for younger children; working as part of
emergency task group
Children aged 12–17: rescuing and saving younger children; caring for younger children; teaching
younger children and peers; treating wounds and caring for injured people; clearing up after an
emergency; collecting bodies; helping to trace families; helping old people to collect food and
rations; helping families with small children to collect food and rations; packing food for distribution;
providing information about milk powder needs; cleaning camps; cleaning and painting buildings;
developing businesses
young people aged 18 and older: rescuing and saving younger children; organising entertainment;
developing businesses; providing community communications; negotiating with outsiders on behalf of
a community

EvERy ChILD’S RIGhT TO BE hEARD
143
chapter Seven • impLementinG artiCLe 12 in the puBLiC arena
there are also risks tied to adolescent
participation. In post-conﬂict situations,
the right of adolescents to participation
may be at odds with their right to
protection. Conﬂicts are over control
of resources and people. They are
about power and politics. In such highly
politicised situations it can be dangerous
for children and adolescents to take on
public roles. This is particularly the case
in the situation of child soldiers and in
the demobilisation, reintegration and
rehabilitation of child soldiers.
in post-conﬂict truth and reconciliation
processes
Children have a signifcant contribution
to make, as well as a right to be involved,
in truth and reconciliation processes in
the aftermath of conﬂict. Experiences
from children’s engagement in military
demobilisation, judicial processes, truthtelling and social reintegration has provided
a body of experience from which to draw
in developing good practice in this feld.
The UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre
and the International Centre for Transitional
Justice have drawn up a series of principles
to inform children’s involvement in truth
and reconciliation processes. The following
are some of the key principles of particular
relevance to the right of the child to be
heard in these processes:213
• Children should become witnesses in
legal prosecution for international crimes
only when necessary. If evidence can be
provided by an adult then child witnesses
should not be exposed to courtroom
procedures.
• Legal procedures should be adapted to
the child and not the other way around.
• When child victims and witnesses give
testimony in judicial processes special
measures should be put in place to
protect their rights, including the provision
of psychosocial support, the use of trained
investigators and the protection of the
child’s identity.
• Children’s participation in transitional
justice processes should strengthen their
protection, and protection should enable
their participation. Effective participation
and protection of children can help to
break the cycle of violence and prevent
future conﬂict and instability. The mutual
link between protection and participation
needs careful consideration so that
participation is informed, guided and
sustainable, and in the best interests of
the child.
• Child and adolescent participation in a
truth commission should not be viewed as
an isolated event to provide information
to the commission, but instead should
be understood as part of a process of
engagement with young people as family
and community members. By bringing
their unique views and experiences
forward children can contribute to
reconciliation and build their capacity for
active citizenship.
• If children participate in statement-taking
or in thematic or closed hearings then
protection policies and procedures must
be in place. Strict confdentiality must be
maintained with regard to the identity of
child victims and witnesses. Participation
of children and young people should
promote psychosocial healing and the
strengthening of self-esteem. Local and
traditional activities that dignify victims and
build a culture of respect for human rights
should also be encouraged.
• Psychosocial and other appropriate
support services should be provided
before, during and in follow-up to
children’s involvement in truth and
reconciliation processes. The provision of
a network of supportive adults and peers
is crucial in the aftermath of civil unrest
or armed conﬂict to encourage children’s
213 See Annex on key principles by UNICEF Innocenti Research
Centre and International Centre for Transitional Justice, in
S Parmar, M J Roseman, S Siegrist and T Sowa, Children and
Transitional Justice: Truth-Telling, Accountability and Reconciliation,
human Rights Program at harvard Law School and UNICEF,
2010
144
recovery and rehabilitation. Special
attention should be given to girls and boys
who have been victims of sexual violence.
In settings where formal networks for
psychosocial support are not functional or
are diffcult to access, alternatives should
be offered.

ChiLdren’s advoCaCy For spaCe in poLitiCaL proCesses
to Further peaCe-BuiLdinG and reaLisation oF
ChiLdren’s riGhts214
Children and young people are advocating for increased space in political processes affecting them,
including formal peace talk, reconciliation and reconstruction processes so that they may more
meaningfully contribute to efforts to identify, address and monitor the structural factors which inhibit
peace and the fulflment of children’s rights. For example:
• In nepal, children have highlighted the importance of the peace agreement and the constitutional
assembly process as a means to establish more inclusive forms of governance, to address poverty
and discrimination and to ensure fair distribution of resources.
• In uganda, children have advocated for space to be included in the formal peace talks taking place
in Juba (South Sudan) and have contributed to consultations on agenda 3 of the peace talks on
accountability and reconciliation. In particular, they have emphasised the importance of forgiveness
and reconciliation and making use of traditional forms of justice.
• In Bosnia-herzegovina, delegates of children have met with the prime minister to advocate for
their recommendations on the provision of quality education, and the importance of addressing
existing discrimination, based on religious difference, within the school system.
• In Guatemala, children have reﬂected on the presidential elections and efforts to ensure greater
attention is paid to monitoring of the peace accords and implementation of children’s rights, as
well as advocating for the historical memory of the internal armed conﬂict to be maintained.
Children and young people have also explained their interest in addressing gang culture and
youth delinquency. Recognising some of the root causes that contribute to delinquency, they are
advocating for improved education and employment opportunities for marginalised children and
youth, and for increased support to families to reduce family violence and to prevent children from
running away to the streets or joining gangs.

214 Clare Feinstein and Claire O’Kane, Adult’s War and Young Generation’s Peace: Children’s
participation in armed conﬂict, post conﬂict and peace-building, Save the Children, Oslo, 2008
EvERy ChILD’S RIGhT TO BE hEARD
145
reCoGnition oF ChiLdren’s riGht to Be heard in the
puBLiC arena means that Governments must:
• recognise the importance of introducing systemic structures
and mechanisms to enable children to participate in civil and
political spaces
• move beyond one-off or ad hoc initiatives
• provide support to enable children to establish their own
organisations, through which they can represent themselves
and other children
• create legitimate and formal spaces for children to access
decision-makers and policy-makers
• at local community level, create opportunities for children’s
engagement through children’s parliaments, representation
on local bodies, consultation on specifc issues, support for
child-led initiatives and organisations, access to the media,
and involvement of children as auditors or monitors of
local services
• at national level, establish a coordinating authority for
promoting implementation of Article 12 across government,
institutionalise child participation at all levels of government
decision-making, create a supportive environment for
children to establish their own organisations, enable children
to monitor implementation of their rights both within the
country and in reporting to the Committee on the Rights
of the Child, and support children in participation in national
and international forums
• in conﬂict and humanitarian reconstruction, involve children
at all stages of reconstruction as active agents in assessment,
design, implementation, and monitoring and evaluation
of programmes.
ChAPTER SEvEN
in summary
forms of child participation
Chapter eight
Madhuri dass/ save the Children
Chapter eight
forms of child participation
potEntial approachEsto participation
Consultative participation
Collaborative participation
Child-led participation
Basic rEQUirEmEnts for EffEctiVE and Ethical participation
1. Transparent and informative
2. Voluntary
3. Respectful
4. Relevant
5. Facilitated with child-friendly environments and working methods
6. Inclusive
7. Supported by training
8. Safe and sensitive to risk
9. Accountable
147
“Please tell all the children in the world that
we have learned a lot about our rights and
that taking part in a participation project
can be very enjoyable and effective.” Girl,
10 years old, Albania215
potentiaL approaChes
to partiCipation
Participation can take many forms and
engage children in different ways and at
different levels. Each of the following three
broad forms of participation represents
a valid and meaningful approach to
implementing Article 12, but offers a
different degree of opportunity for
children to inﬂuence matters affecting
them, and, accordingly, differing degrees of
empowerment. However, they are each
appropriate to different circumstances.
Consultative participation
This is a process in which adults seek
children’s views in order to build knowledge
and understanding of their lives and
experience. It is characterised by being:
• adult initiated
• adult led and managed
• lacking any possibility for children to
control outcomes.
It therefore does not allow for sharing or
transferring decision-making processes
to children themselves. However, it does
recognise that children have expertise
and perspectives which need to inform
adult decision-making. Consultation is an
appropriate means of enabling children
to express views, for example, when
undertaking research, in planning processes,
in developing legislation, policy or services,
or in decisions affecting individual children
within the family, in healthcare or in
education, or as witnesses in judicial or
administrative proceedings. Consultative
processes can be used to ascertain the
views of children of all ages, including very
young children, and should not be limited
to those able to engage in ‘adult’ forms of
communication. Methodologies must be
adapted in accordance with the evolving
capacities of children.
There are many different mechanisms
that can be used to consult with children,
including:
• online surveys
• peer research
• consultative processes through the
school system
• focus groups with particular groups of
children on areas of particular interest to
them, for example, access to transport
for children in rural communities,
discrimination against girls in school,
adequacy of protective employment
legislation for working children
• nationally organised events, meetings or
conferences
• multi-level consultation involving groups of
local children, feeding into national forums.
Children should be directly involved in
determining the methods of participation
to ensure that they are accessible and
child friendly.
ChAPTER EIGhT
Forms oF ChiLd partiCipation
215 K Kranzl-Nagl and U Zartler, ‘Participation in school and
community’ in B Percy-Smith and N Thomas (eds) A Handbook
of Children and Young People’s Participation, Routledge,
London, 2010
148
Collaborative participation
This provides a greater degree of
partnership between adults and children,
with the opportunity for active engagement
at any stage of a decision, initiative, project
or service. It can be characterised as:
• adult initiated
• involving partnership with children
• empowering children to inﬂuence or
challenge both process and outcomes;
• allowing for increasing levels of selfdirected action by children over a period
of time.
Collaborative participation might include
the involvement of children in designing and
undertaking research, policy development,
peer education and counselling, participation
in conferences, or in representation on
boards or committees. Individual decisions
within the family, in education and in
healthcare can also be collaborative rather
than consultative, and involve children
more fully in decision-making processes.
Collaborative participation provides
opportunity for shared decision-making
with adults, and for children to inﬂuence

ChiLdren ConsuLted on heaLthCare in south aFriCa216
In a consultation with children in South Africa about their experiences of healthcare, the children
repeatedly commented that nurses and doctors did not always seem to care about them or their
health. Even when they were in pain, many felt that there was no one to tell or who was interested
in them. Because they were children, they found it diffcult to ask for help or attention when they
needed it. They often felt lonely and frightened, particularly at night. Many also expressed fear
because doctors and nurses sometimes shouted at them, or treated them roughly when, for example,
changing bandages. Lack of privacy and respect for their dignity was another major concern they
raised. They also highlighted the lack of information provided by doctors, which left them feeling
unnecessarily anxious and lacking control, commenting that “It makes us sad when we ask the doctor
or nurse what is wrong and he won’t tell you.” Some criticism was also focused on their caregivers, who
often failed or refused to take them to a doctor even when they were sick or in pain. They felt that
health professionals had a role to play in educating caregivers about early identifcation and referral.
They also felt that health workers should be made aware of the power relationship between adults
as authority fgures and children, and of children’s vulnerability when sick, and to be encouraged to
be more proactive in offering care in ways that acknowledge the child’s feelings.

216 S Moses and G Urgoiti, Child Rights Education for Professionals (CRED-PRO), Pilot of the
Children’s Participatory Workshops, Children’s Institute, Cape Town, March 2008

ConsuLtinG ChiLdren in denmarK
The Danish National Council for Children has developed an elaborate form of consultation with
children, establishing contacts with a total of 150 children, in seven schools and a daycare institution
(for children aged 4 to 6 years). The children agreed to consider and respond to questions and
papers which the Council sends them. They discuss them with their teachers, and can then respond
either individually or collectively. There have been consultations on children’s employment and pay,
children’s use of videos and Tv, children’s participation in decision-making – both within the family
and in local planning – and on corporal punishment in the family. The Council has also brought all the
children together for residential conferences.

EvERy ChILD’S RIGhT TO BE hEARD
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chapter eIGht • Forms oF ChiLd partiCipation
both the process and the outcomes in any
given activity.
Consultative processes can be made
collaborative, for example, in a research
project, by:
• enabling children to identify what the
relevant questions are
• giving children the opportunity to help
develop the methodology for the research
• enabling, encouraging and supporting
children to take on the role of researchers
• involving children in discussions about
the fndings, their interpretation and their
implications for future developments.

ChiLdren’s and aduLts’ partiCipation in ‘reFLeCt-aCtion’
Groups in a reFuGee Camp, paKistan217
In response to the new inﬂux of refugees from Afghanistan into Pakistan following the US attack
on Afghanistan after 11 September 2001, Save the Children began an initiative to further children’s
protection and wellbeing. A Child Protection Monitoring Tool was developed and piloted in refugee
camps in Balochistan, and in Kotkai in the North West Frontier Province.
In Kotkai camp, the child protection work evolved over time. Save the Children developed visual
participatory tools for exploring issues identifed within the child protection monitoring tool. Then,
through the use of ‘Reﬂect- Action’ groups the local community, including women, men, young
people, girls and boys, was able to address their important concerns. ‘Reﬂect-Action’ is defned as
“a structured participatory learning process, which facilitates people’s critical analysis of their environment,
placing empowerment at the heart of sustainable and equitable development. Through the creation of
democratic spaces and the construction and interpretation of locally generated texts, people build their own
analysis of local and global reality and re-defne power relationships (in both public and private spheres).” 218
Save the Children provided capacity-building for a local team to facilitate Reﬂect-Action circles to
ensure community-based child protection monitoring and response. This work has given children
in Kotkai confdence, voice and inﬂuence to address their issues. Girls and boys have demonstrated
in practical ways that they are capable of analysing their own situation, identifying concerns and
developing strategies to address them. Within months, the children won the confdence of the
refugee camp management and relief agencies, and established themselves as valuable partners in
camp administration. Children raised their concerns with relief agencies and camp administrators
at fortnightly meetings. They shared their visual presentations and sometimes used drama. They also
kept the wider community members informed about adult responses.
The specifc issues children explored and presented to offcials have included: the education system,
children under stress, disease, water shortages, drugs, and early marriages. Responses by the camp
and relief agency administrators have led to improved school facilities, changes in teacher behaviour,
checks on corporal punishment, awareness of early child marriage and gender-related violence,
increased access to hygienic sanitation, and a more adequate supply of water.
An analysis of Save the Children’s work in Kotkai by community members clustered the impact into
three categories: 1) empowerment, 2) changes in social behaviour and 3) capacity-building.
1) empowerment: Community members felt the Reﬂect-Action gave them confdence to
communicate with any individual regardless of their status or position, and to take the initiative
on their own. Girls and women felt their mobility had increased, and girl’s registration in schools

217 Adapted from: Child Protection: The Kotkai Experience, Save the
Children, Pakistan and Child Participation in Camp Management:
Kotkai Refugee Camp, Save the Children, 2002
218 Child Participation in Camp Management: Kotkai Refugee Camp, Save
the Children, 2002
continued overleaf
150
Child-led participation
This is where children are afforded or
claim the space and opportunity to initiate
activities and advocate for themselves. It is
characterised by:
• the issues of concern being identifed by
children themselves
• adults serving as facilitators rather than
leaders
• children controlling the process.
Children can initiate action as individuals,
for example, in choosing a school, seeking
medical advice, pressing for the realisation
of their rights through the courts, or
utilising complaints mechanisms. They
can also initiate action as a constituency
by establishing and managing their own
organisations for the purposes of policy
analysis, advocacy, awareness-raising; through
peer representation and education; and
through the use of and access to the media.
The role of adults in child-led participation
is to act as facilitators, resource-providers,
technical assistants and child protection
workers to enable children to pursue their
own objectives.

ChiLdren’s and aduLts’ partiCipation in ‘reFLeCt-aCtion’
Groups in a reFuGee Camp, paKistan continued
had also increased. As community members gained more understanding of the camp governance
structures and the roles and responsibilities of different agencies, they were able to develop links to
agencies to address issues affecting them.
2) Changes in social behaviour: Community members felt the greatest impact had been in terms
of better social behaviour in the camp. Generally there was less fghting over petty issues. Children
and young people said that they had recognised the negative impacts of fghting at Reﬂect-Action
circles and had resolved to consciously try to live in peace. Community members were more able to
recognise and avoid bad company, particularly individuals involved in drug use, theft or other anti
social activity. They demonstrated increased social responsibility by trying to help each other.
The community began providing human resource support to agencies to maintain the camp’s physical
infrastructure, to run youth groups, children’s and women’s groups, and reconciliatory jirgas, and to
maintain libraries and recreational parks. school attendance of both girls and boys had increased.
3) Capacity-building: Community members had gained skills in situational analysis and in
developing solutions. They knew which offcials to present their problems to in order for them to
be addressed. Communication has increased as offcials listen more and try to respond effectively.
Through the process some women have learned to write, increasing their literacy. Overall,
community members felt they had increased their general knowledge.
Save the Children felt that child protection through children’s participation should be initiated as a
long-term development strategy.

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chapter eIGht • Forms oF ChiLd partiCipation
219 Adapted from information provided by the African Movement of
Working Children andyouth, ENDA Jeunesse Action, and Save
the Children Sweden regional offce in West Africa
220 www.enda.sn/eja

the aFriCan movement oF worKinG ChiLdren andyouth219
The African Movement of Working Children andyouth (AMWCy), a child-led movement founded in
1994, currently has associations in 126 cities and villages in 21 countries of sub-Saharan Africa. It has
almost 150,000 members, including housemaids, apprentices and independent working girls and boys,
some of whom are extremely marginalised.
A project to strengthen action against migration of children and young people and child traffcking
was established in 2004 by AMWCy associations in Benin, Burkina Faso, Côte d’Ivoire, Mali
and Niger, supported by AMWCy’s main partners (Enda Third World, Plan, Save the Children
and UNICEF). The project has since been extended to Guinea, Senegal and Togo. AMWCy has
undertaken activities in 150 villages, establishing regular contact with traditional authorities and
information forums on the risks of early exodus. Children and young people have been supported
to develop solutions, including improving school conditions and attendance, developing income
generating activities, improving leisure opportunities and introducing or improving birth registration.
Efforts have also been made to engage parents, as inter-generational conﬂict is considered to be one
of the root causes of children leaving.young people who decide to move within their country or
migrate abroad are helped with information and contacts, and they are also helped to stay in touch
with their home villages. These actions are intended to reduce children’s isolation and vulnerability
to abuse and exploitation. Talks and informal listening points are established in transport stations,
markets and other areas where migrants gather. These activities have been initiated in 64 locations.
Assistance is provided to children who wish to return home, using AMWCy’s network and formal
networks linked to NGOs and other actors. Governments have offered support to AMWCy
initiatives. For example, in Côte d’Ivoire, the ministries of justice and of social affairs support
communication initiatives and AMWCy conferences in towns and villages to discuss early exodus
and child traffcking. A bilateral agreement on child traffcking between Mali and Senegal has been
improved by inclusion of amendments aimed at increasing respect for children’s rights. An assessment
was conducted in 2007. Reﬂection on lessons learned led to a refned vision and action plan,
contained in the Bamako Declaration (19 October 2007).220
Regional lobbying and partnerships have brought children’s perspectives to regional forums such
as the Regional Working Group against Traffcking in Persons, of which AMWCy is a full member.
AMWCy has contributed to the working group’s concept plan for reducing children’s mobility risk,
which highlights the difference between voluntary migration for work and exploitive/forced migration
for traffcking. AMWCy also contributed to the strategic plan against traffcking drawn up by the
Economic Community of West African States, which has led to the participation of children and civil
society in its new action plan.
Of key importance to AMWCy’s sustainability is its structure as a child-led movement based on a
large and well-organised network of associations in villages and towns across sub-Saharan Africa.
Crucial to its success is its ability to stay in contact with children and young people in exodus.
AMWCy’s familiarity with its target population eases access to information and strengthens
relationships with concerned communities.

152
BasiC requirements For
eFFeCtive and ethiCaL
partiCipation
In order for children’s participation
to be effective, ethical, systematic and
sustainable, it is essential that certain
principles and standards are complied with.
Without adherence to these standards,
there is a danger that children will be
manipulated, placed at risk, or denied any
real opportunity to articulate their own
views. The considerable body of experience
that has been built up since the UNCRC
was adopted in 1989, has led to a broad
consensus on the basic requirements
which have to be reached for effective,
ethical and meaningful implementation of
Article 12. These requirements need to
be incorporated into policy and practice
at all levels and, wherever possible, to be
reﬂected in any legislative framework.
The basic standards for the implementation
of Article 12 must be interpreted within the
context of the following general principles
derived from the UNCRC:
• Measures should be put in place to
encourage and facilitate children’s
participation in accordance with their age
and maturity.
• Participation should promote the best
interest of the child and enhance the
personal development of each child.
• All children have equal rights to
participation without discrimination.
• All children have the right to be protected
from manipulation, violence, abuse and
exploitation.
In practice this means that child
participation must meet the following nine
basic requirements:221
1 transparent and informative
Children must be provided with full,
accessible, diversity-sensitive and
age-appropriate information about their
right to express their views freely and for
their views to be given due weight, and
about how this participation will take place,
its scope, purpose and potential impact.
Meeting this requirement will necessitate that:
• There is clarity of purpose about
children’s participation and honesty about
its parameters. Children understand how
much impact they can have on decisionmaking and who will make the fnal
decision.
• The roles and responsibilities of all
involved (children, adults and other
stakeholders) are clearly outlined,
understood and agreed upon.
• Clear goals and targets are agreed with
the children.
• Children are provided with and have
access to relevant information regarding
their involvement.
• ‘Outside’ adults involved in any
participatory processes are made aware
of the needs of children, clear about their
role and willing to listen and learn.
• Organisations and workers are
accountable to children for the
commitments they make.
• The barriers and challenges that
participating children may have faced in
other spheres of their lives are considered
and discussed with the children involved
to reduce any potential negative impacts.
2 voluntary
Children should never be coerced into
expressing views against their wishes and
they should be informed that they can cease
involvement at any stage.
Meeting this requirement will necessitate that:
• Children have time to consider their
involvement and processes are established
to ensure that they are able to give their
personal, informed consent to their
participation.
221 These standards or requirements are largely drawn from Save the Children’s Practice
Standards in Children’s Participation, 2005 http://www.savethechildren.org.uk/en/54_3169.htm
EvERy ChILD’S RIGhT TO BE hEARD
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chapter eIGht • Forms oF ChiLd partiCipation
• Children are given suffcient information
and support to enable them to make an
informed decision on their participation.
• Children’s participation is voluntary and
they can withdraw at any time they wish.
• Children’s other time commitments are
respected and accommodated (eg, to
home, work, school).
3 respectful
Children’s views have to be treated with
respect and children should be provided
with opportunities to initiate ideas and
activities. Adults working with children
should acknowledge, respect and build on
good examples of children’s participation,
for instance, in their contributions
to the family, school, culture and the
work environment. They also need an
understanding of the socio-economic,
environmental and cultural context of
children’s lives. Persons and organisations
working for and with children should also
respect children’s views with regard to
participation in public events.
Meeting this requirement will necessitate that:
• Girls and boys are able to freely express
their views and opinions and have them
treated with respect.
• Where the process of involvement
requires representation from a wider
group of children, the selection of
representatives will be based on principles
of democracy and non-discrimination.
• Ways of working build the self-esteem
and self-confdence of boys and girls of
different ages and abilities so that they
feel they are able to contribute and that
they have valid experience and views to
contribute.
4 relevant
Opportunities must be available for children
to express their views on issues of real
relevance to their lives and enable them to
draw on their knowledge, skills and abilities.
Children’s participation should build on their
personal knowledge – the information and
insights that children have about their own
lives, their communities and the issues that
affect them.
Meeting this requirement will necessitate that:
• The issues are of real relevance to the
children being involved and draw upon
their knowledge, skills and abilities.
• Children are involved in setting the criteria
for selection and representation for
participation.
• Children are involved in ways, at levels and
at a pace appropriate to their capacities
and interests.
• Ways of working and methods of
involvement incorporate and build on
supportive local structures, knowledge
and practice and take into consideration
social, economic, cultural and traditional
practices.
• Preparation with and support from key
adults in children’s lives (eg, parents/
guardians, teachers) is gained to ensure
wider support for the participation of girls
and boys.
5 Facilitated with child-friendly
environments and working methods
The approaches to working with children
should be adapted to their capacities.
Adequate time and resources should be
made available to ensure that children
are adequately prepared and have the
confdence and opportunity to contribute
their views. Consideration needs to be given
to the fact that children will need differing
levels of support and forms of involvement
according to their age and evolving
capacities.
Meeting this requirement will necessitate that:
• Ways of working build the self-esteem
and self-confdence of boys and girls of
different ages and abilities so that they
feel they are able to contribute and that
they have valid experience and views to
contribute.
154
• Methods of involvement are developed
in partnership with children so that
they reﬂect their preferred mediums of
expression.
• Suffcient time and resources are made
available for quality participation and
children are properly supported to
prepare for their participation.
• Adults (including children’s own parents/
guardians) are enabled to understand
the value of children’s participation and
are enabled to play a positive role in
supporting it (eg, through awarenessraising, reﬂection and capacity-building).
• Child-friendly meeting places are used
where girls and boys feel relaxed and
comfortable and have access to the
facilities they need. The meeting places
must be accessible to children with
disabilities.
• Organisational or offcial procedures are
designed/modifed to facilitate (rather
than intimidate) children and welcome
less experienced boys and girls.
• Support is provided where necessary to
share information and/or build skills and
capacity to enable children, individually and
collectively, to participate effectively.
• Children are asked what information they
need and accessible information is shared
with children in good time, in child-friendly
formats and in languages that the children
understand, including children with visual
or hearing impairments.
• In situations where children encounter
different native/frst languages, access
to written information and professional
interpretation is provided that allows for
children’s full participation in discussions.
• Non-technical language is used in all
discussions involving children and/or
all jargon or technical terms are clearly
explained.
6 inclusive
Participation must be inclusive, avoid existing
patterns of discrimination, and encourage
opportunities for marginalised children,
including both girls and boys, to be involved.
Children are not a homogeneous group and
participation needs to provide for equality
of opportunity for all, without discrimination
on any grounds. Programmes also need to
ensure that they are culturally sensitive to
children from all communities.
Meeting this requirement will necessitate that:
• All children have an equal chance to
participate and systems are developed to
ensure that children are not discriminated
against because of age, race, colour,
sex, language, religion, political or other
opinion, national, ethnic or social origin,
property, disability, birth or other status.
• Children’s involvement is aimed at
including, if possible, all rather than a few;
this could mean reaching out to children
in their local settings rather than inviting
representatives to a central point.
• Participatory practice with children is
ﬂexible enough to respond to the needs,
expectations and situations of different
groups of children – and to regularly
re-visit these concerns.
• The age range, gender and abilities of
children are taken into account in the way
participation is organised, eg, in the way
information is presented.
• Those working with children are able
to facilitate an environment that is nondiscriminatory and inclusive.
• No assumptions are taken for granted
about what specifc groups of children can
and cannot do.
• Children are given an equal opportunity
to voice their opinions and have their
contributions reﬂected in any outcomes
of a participatory process, including in
processes that involve both children and
adults.
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chapter eIGht • Forms oF ChiLd partiCipation
• If there is a limit to how many children
can participate, children themselves
select from among their peers those
who will represent them in participatory
initiatives, on the basis of the principles of
democracy and inclusion.
• Inﬂuential adults are engaged to gain
family and community support for the
participation of discriminated-against
groups.
7 supported by training
Adults need preparation, skills and support
to facilitate children’s participation effectively,
to provide them, for example, with skills in
listening, working jointly with children and
engaging children effectively in accordance
with their evolving capacities. Children
themselves can be involved as trainers and
facilitators on how to promote effective
participation; they require capacity-building
to strengthen their skills in, for example,
effective awareness of their rights, and
training in organising meetings, raising funds,
dealing with the media, public speaking and
advocacy.
Meeting this requirement will necessitate that:
• all staff and managers are enabled to
understand the importance of children’s
participation and understand the
commitment to it
• staff are provided with appropriate
training, tools and other development
opportunities in participatory practice
to enable them to work effectively and
confdently with children of different ages
and abilities
• staff are properly supported and
supervised, and their participation practice
is evaluated
• specifc technical skills or expertise (eg,
in communication, facilitation, conﬂict
resolution or multicultural working)
are built up through a combination of
recruitment, selection, staff development
and practice exchange
• relations between staff and between staff
and management model appropriate
behaviour, and that staff and management
treat each other with respect and honesty
• support is provided for any managers and
staff for whom children’s participation
entails a signifcant personal or cultural
change, without this being regarded as a
problem
• staff are able to express any views or
anxieties about involving children, in the
expectation that these will be addressed
in a constructive way.
8 safe and sensitive to risk
In certain situations, expression of views
may involve risks. Adults have a responsibility
towards the children with whom they work
and must take every precaution to minimise
the risk to children of violence, exploitation
or any other negative consequence of their
participation. Action necessary to provide
appropriate protection will include the
development of a clear child-protection
strategy which recognises the particular risks
faced by some groups of children, and the
extra barriers they face in obtaining help.
Children must be aware of their right to be
protected from harm and know where to
go for help if needed. Investment in working
with families and communities is important
in order to build understanding of the value
and implications of participation, and to
minimise the risks to which children may
otherwise be exposed.
Meeting this requirement will necessitate that:
• The protection rights of children
are paramount in the way children’s
participation is planned and organised.
• Children involved in participation work
are aware of their right to be safe from
abuse and know where to go for help if
needed.
• Skilled, knowledgeable staff are delegated
to address and coordinate child-protection
issues during participatory processes.
156
• Staff organising a participatory process
have a child protection strategy that is
specifc to each process. The strategy must
be well communicated and understood by
all staff involved in the process.
• Safeguards are in place to minimise risks
and prevent abuse (eg, children are
adequately supervised and protected at
all times; risk assessments are in place
for residential activities away from home;
children are protected from abuse by
other children).
• Staff recognise their legal and ethical
obligations and responsibilities (eg, in
respect of their own behaviour or what to
do if they are told about the inappropriate
behaviour of others). A system for
reporting critical incidents is in place and
understood by all staff.
• Child protection procedures recognise the
particular risks faced by some groups of
children and the extra barriers they face
to obtaining help.
• Careful assessment is made of the risks
associated with children’s participation in
speaking out, campaigning or advocacy.
Depending on the risks identifed, steps
may be needed to protect children’s
identity or to provide follow-up measures
to give protection (eg, to ensure their safe
reintegration into their communities).
• Consent is obtained for the use of all
information provided by children and
information identifed as confdential is
safeguarded at all times.
• A formal complaints procedure is set up
to allow children involved in participatory
activities to make a complaint in
confdence about any issue concerning
their involvement. Information about the
complaints procedure is accessible to
children in relevant languages and formats.
• No photographs, videos or digital images
of a child can be taken or published
without that child’s explicit consent for a
specifc use.
• Unless otherwise agreed, it must not be
possible to trace information back to
individual/groups of children.
• Responsibilities relating to liability, safety,
travel and medical insurance are clearly
delegated and effectively planned for.
9 accountable
A commitment to follow-up and evaluation
is essential. For example, in any research
or consultative process, children must be
informed as to how their views have been
interpreted and used and, where necessary,
they must be provided with the opportunity
to challenge and inﬂuence the analysis of
the fndings. Children are also entitled to be
provided with clear feedback on how their
participation has inﬂuenced any outcomes.
Wherever appropriate, children should
be given the opportunity to participate in
follow-up processes or activities. Monitoring
and evaluation of children’s participation
needs to be undertaken, where possible,
with children themselves.
Meeting this requirement will necessitate that:
• Children are involved from the earliest
possible stage and are able to inﬂuence
the design and content of participatory
processes.
• Children are supported to participate in
follow-up and evaluation processes.
• Follow-up and evaluation is addressed
during the planning stages, as an integral
part of any participation initiative.
• Children are supported and encouraged
to share their participatory experiences
with peer groups, local communities,
organisations and any projects that they
may be involved with.
• Children are given rapid and clear
feedback on the impact of their
involvement, the outcome of any
decisions/next steps and the value of their
involvement.
• Feedback reaches all children involved.
EvERy ChILD’S RIGhT TO BE hEARD
157
chapter eIGht • Forms oF ChiLd partiCipation
• Children are asked about their satisfaction
with the participation process and for
their views on ways in which it could be
improved.
• The results of monitoring and evaluation
are communicated back to the children
involved in an accessible and child-friendly
way, and their feedback is taken into
account in future participation work.
• Mistakes identifed through evaluation are
acknowledged and commitments given
about how lessons learned will be used
to improve participatory processes in the
future.
• Adults will evaluate how they have
translated and implemented children’s
priorities and recommendations into their
policies, strategies and programmes.
• Sustainability of support is discussed with
children. Adults will provide clear feedback
to children regarding the extent/limit of
their commitment to support children’s
ongoing initiatives and organisations. If
ongoing support is not possible, adults
will provide children with resources and
support to make contact with other
agencies who can support them.
158
UNICEF’s web-based child and youth
participation resource guide provides an
overview and links to existing resources
on child and youth participation from Asia,
Europe, North America, Latin America,
Africa, Australia and the Pacifc. Most of the
materials are in English and are available
electronically.
The guide is aimed mainly at practitioners
and managers involved in promoting child
and youth participation in government,
community-based organisations, child-led
organisations, NGOs and UN and
donor agencies.
Documents are organised into four broad
categories:
• basics of child and youth participation
• involvement in research, analysis, planning
implementation, evaluation
• participation in programme areas
• involvement in political decision-making.
Thematic areas include:
• education
• HIV prevention
• health, hygiene and sanitation promotion
• environmental protection
• urban planning
• emergency response and preparedness
• protection from exploitation, violence
and abuse.
http://www.unicef.org/adolescence/cypguide/resourceguide.html
APPENDIx
ChiLd and youth partiCipation resourCe Guide
Every child’s right to express their views and have them taken seriously is enshrined
in Article 12 of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child. However, despite many
positive examples – some of which are referred to in this guide – most children are
not included in discussions about issues that affect them.
This resource guide is a companion document to the UN Committee on the Rights
of the Child General Comment No. 12 on the ‘Right of the Child to be Heard’. As well
as outlining their obligations to listen to children, it provides governments, NGOs,
policy-makers and international agencies with practical guidance on how to include
children’s views and opinions in different settings. It also explains how Article 12 links
with other Articles of the UNCRC.
Every Child’s Right to be Heard provides:
• illustrative examples of laws and regulations, guidance and policy that have been
adopted by some governments to give effect to the right embodied in Article 12
• practical guidance on how to create the opportunities for children to be heard
• evidence from research, for example, regarding the impact of children’s participation,
or their concerns in particular settings
• illustrative examples from around the world of initiatives undertaken to enable
children to participate in decisions and actions that affect them
• basic requirements for ensuring child participation that is ethical, safe and effective
• arguments to be made to demonstrate the positive outcomes associated with
realising the right of children to be heard and taken seriously.
EvEry Child’s right to bE hEard
a resource guide on the un committee
on the rights of the child general comment no. 12
Gerison Lansdown
“The Committee recommends this resource guide as a major contribution
to achieving change… The evidence it produces demonstrates that not only
is it possible to create environments in which children can make a signifcant
contribution to their own and others’ lives, but that doing so brings real benefts.”
Yanghee Lee and Jean Zermatten, former and current Chair,
UN Committee on the Rights of the Child

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