Today
 How to design “fun” gamesMarketing Research and Data Analysis
 Image basics
 PImage class
 How to load and display an
image
 Case study: use images to build
an Avoider Game
 State control
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 Debugging tips
 Compiler errors
 Semantic errors
 Runtime exceptions
How to Design Fun Games
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Fun topology
MDA Model for game design
Motivation Design
Design Rewards
Balancing skills and challenges
What do we mean by a “Fun
Game”?
 Sid Meier: “a game is a series of interesting choices”
 Must be Fun: Challenging, Rewarding, and Balancing
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Describe the challenge here? How about here?
Typology of Fun (Aesthetics)
1. Sensation: Game as sense-pleasure
2. Fantasy: Game as make-believe
3. Narrative: Game as unfolded story
4. Challenge: Game as obstacle course
5. Fellowship: Game as social framework
6. Discovery: Game as uncharted territory, novelty
7. Expression: Game as self-discovery
8. Submission: Game as pastime
Marc LeBlanc
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Example: Fun types in
Games
• Charades (word guessing game)
 Fellowship, Expression, Challenge
• Fable 2 (Action RPG)
 An epic story (Narrative) involving the player
searching the world (Discovery) of Albion for the
Legendary heroes (Fantasy & Challenge) who are
prophesized to save the world from Lucien (Grand
Challenge)
 Players can morph their characters based on their
actions (Expression), and is allowed for marriage
and sexual liaisons with NPCs (Fellowship)
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How to
Design a Game with Desired
Funs?
 One approach is to follow Mark
Leblanc’s MDA Model
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Games as Software
Rules Activity “Fun”
Code Process Requirements
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=
The MDA Framework
Mechanics Dynamics Aesthetics
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Game Play: Player’s
Perspective

Dynamics Aesthetics 
Player
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Game Design: The
Designer’s Perspective
 Mechanics

Aesthetics
Designer
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Game Design: Essential
Parts
 System design: game mechanics, rules,
objectives, challenges, AI, economy
 Interaction design: Controls, interfaces,
feedbacks
 Motivation design: Learning, reward,
balancing difficulty against ability
Motivation Design: Rewards
in Games
 Operant Conditioning
 A method of learning that occurs through rewards and
punishments for behaviour
 Established by Skinner
 Behaviors can be forged through:
 Reinforcements – rewarding to increase the behavior
 Punishments – punishing to decrease the behavior
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Categories of Rewards
 Rewards of Glory: things that have no impact on gameplay
but will be taken away by players after playing:
 illusionary achievements (e.g. ranks, social rewards, …)
 Rewards of Sustenance or Enhancement: maintaining or
enhancing player’s status or ability
 Restoring health/lives by health packs
 Enhancing using power-ups (on a temporary basis)
 Rewards of Access (to new locations or resources)
 Gaining keys, passwords, picklocks, secret room, bonus level, etc.
(on temporary basis)
Hallford & Hallford
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Motivation Design: Balancing for
skills
 Players have different level of skill, and it will get improved
along with playing
 These require your game design to:
 Provide various difficulty levels (e.g. easy/midum/hard)
And more importantly:
 Escalate difficulties/challenges as player moves up on levels
 Tetris: speed increases according to player score
 Space invader: aliens approaching faster + boss
fight
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Balancing Skills and Challenges
0 (Low) Skills (High) ∞
Flow
Chann
el
∞
(High)
(Low)
0
Challenges
Boredom
Anxiety
Your goal is to adjust challenge dynamically to
maintain gameplay within the flow channel so as
to maximize the player’s enjoyment
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=
Summary
 To design a fun game, one approach you are suggested is to:
 Follow MDA model to specify what types of funs you want your
target audience to enjoy, and set them as the goal of your game
design
 Design your game revolving around the essential parts of game
design: System design (Mechanics & Gameplay), Interaction design
(UI), and Motivation design (Rewards):
 Design reasonable mechanics to allow for enjoyable gameplay
experience
 Design different types of rewards into your game to motivate and
engage players to play your game
 Make your game balanced between game challenges and players’ skill
levels by scaling up challenges with player’s progression
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Image Basics
 PImage class
 How to load and display an image
 Case study: use images to build an Avoider Game
 State control
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Revisit Game Framework:
where images could be relevant?
 Visual Presentations
 Game map or world
 Game tokens (e.g. avatar, NPCs,
weapons, ammos, rewards, etc.)
 User interface(Buttons, menus,
HUD)
 HUD: for feedbacks such as
Scoreboard, lives, timer, etc.
Game map, tokens and even part of
HUD can be done in either graphics
or images
 Game logic and flow control
 Objects for storing property and
state info
 Game Loop
 Update game state
 Move and detect collision
 Handle user events for interactions
 Winning Conditions
 If the goal(s) has (have) been
achieved
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PImage class
 PImage is a Processing’s built-in class
 Each actual image seen on Processing screen is a PImage object
 Inside Processing library, it is defined as:
class PImage {

}
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Methods for
Image Loading & Displaying
 Method for image loading:
PImage loadImage (String filename);
 Method for image display:
void image (PImage img, float x, float y ) – display in actual size
void image (PImage img, float x, float y, float w, float h )
 be careful, it needs to recompute the sizes of the image every time it is called
(60 times per second!)
 It will slow down your program’s running considerably
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Loading Images
 Loading an image
 You need to add the image into the data folder under your sketch
folder
 The data folder can be generated automatically when you add images to
your sketch folder
 Then use the file name to load it:
 Or you may want to create a sub-folder under your data folder to hold
all image files, e.g. img, then load an image file as follows:
PImage img = loadImage(“image filename”);
PImage img = loadImage(“img/image filename”);
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Displaying Images
 image(PImage img, float x, float y)
draw image starting at location (x, y)
 image(img, 0, 0) will draw your image starting
at the origin of the window
 Where is (x, y) referring to on the image?
 It depends on the imageMode
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imageMode() sets the location of drawing
 imageMode(CORNER);
 (x, y) is the top left corner of the image – the default
location
 imageMode(CENTER);
 (x, y) is the center of the image
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Load and Display a BG Image
 First we need to add the image into the
sketch folder
 To make the window size match the
image size:
PImage bkImg = loadImage(“background.png”);
image(bkImg, 0, 0);
//set window’s size as per bkImg’s size
size(550, 400);
PImage bkImg = loadImage(“background.png”);
image(bkImg, 0, 0);
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Load and Display other Images
 Add two characters onto the background
PImage bkImg, avatarImg, monsterImg;
void setup() {
//set window’s size as per bkImg’s size
size(550, 400);
bkImg = loadImage(“background.png”);
avatarImg = loadImage(“character.png”);
monsterImg = loadImage(“monster.png”);
}
void draw() {
image (bkImg, 0, 0, bkImg.width, bkImg.height);
image(avatarImg, width/2-avatarImg.width/2, height-avatarImg.height);
image(monsterImg, width/2-monsterImg.width/2, 0);
}
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Note to loadImage()
 Load images in setup() only, so that they will be
loaded only once
 Never load images in draw(), which would load the
image repeatedly
 Very costly and will slow down your program’s running
significantly!!
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Case Study: using these images to
create an Avoider Game
 The avatar will be controlled with keyboard to move
around
 A collection of monsters would roam around, get killed
when hit by avatar
 To win the game, the avatar should try to dodge the
monsters and reach the top of the screen
 It loses health when hit by a monster, and loses the game if
the health depletes
 The game will have state-control, switching among
states:
 Gameplay, Winning, and Losing
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The main sketch
GameWorld gw;
Avatar avt;
int countMons = 18;
PImage monImg;
ArrayList<Monster> monsters = new
ArrayList<Monster>();
int gameState = 0;
//Keyboard control section
…
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void setup() {
… //load images and initialize variables
}
void draw() {
switch (gameState) {
case 0: gameplay(); break;
case 1: gameOver(“You Win!!”); break;
case 2: gameOver(“Game Over.nTry
Again!!”); break;
}
}
Define GameWorld Class
class GameWorld {
PImage bkImg;
GameWorld() {
bkImg = loadImage(“background.png”);
bkImg.resize(2*bkImg.width, 2*bkImg.height); //double the image display size
}
void display() {
image(bkImg, 0, 0, bkImg.width, bkImg.height); //the last two arguments can be omitted
}
}
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Define Avatar Class
class Avatar {
PImage img;
PVector pos;
PVector vel;
float damp = 0.8;
float maxHealth=10, health = maxHealth,
healthPercentage=1; //vars for health meter
Avatar(PImage img, PVector pos) {
this.img = img;
this.pos = pos;
vel = new PVector();
}
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void move(PVector acc) {
vel.add(acc);
}
void update() {
vel.mult(damp);
pos.add(vel); //moves character
if (pos.x + img.width > width) pos.x = width-img.width;
if (pos.x < 0) pos.x = 0;
if (pos.y + img.height > height) pos.y = height-img.height;
drawHealthBar();

}
Define Avatar Class (1)
void hit() {

//reset its position to the bottom center when hit
pos = new PVector(width/2-img.width/2, height-img.height);
} //end of hit method
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void drawMe() {
pushMatrix();
translate(pos.x, pos.y);
image(img, 0, 0);
popMatrix();
}
void drawHealthBar() {
…
}
} //end of Avatar class
Define Monster Class
class Monster {
PImage img;
PVector pos, vel;
Monster(PImage img, PVector pos) {
this.img = img;
this.pos = pos;
vel = new PVector(random(-8, 8), 0);
}
void update() {
detectEdges();
pos.add(vel);
//cancel its down movement if any
if (vel.y > 0) vel.y = 0;
}
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void detectEdges() {
//if left or right edge of stage is detected
if (pos.x < 0 || (pos.x + img.width) > width) {
vel.x *= -1; //make it move back by reversing its vx
vel.y = img.height; //make it move down by an image height
}
//if half of the window height is reached wrap it to the top
if (pos.y >= height/2) {
pos.y = 0;
}
}
boolean collision (Avtar avt) {
… //collision detection between current monster against avatar
}
void drawMe() {
… //render the monster image starting from top-left corner
}
} //end of Monster class
Summary for Image and State Control
 Game map, tokens and even part of HUD can be done in either graphics or images
 PImage is a Processing’s built-in class that would allow us to hold data loaded from image files
 Important Properties: image’s width and height that can be accessed with an PImage object
 resize(w, h): Resize the image to a new width and height

void image (PImage img, float x, float y ) – display in actual size
void image (PImage img, float x, float y, float w, float h ) – display in size specified by w & h – be
careful to use it
 Game state control
 Use numbers to represent different game state
 Use a variable to hold the number for the active state
 Use switch or nested-if statements to control the flow between states
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Debugging Tips
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How do I know if my program is broken?
 Compiler Errors
 Errors the compiler can catch – easy to fix
 Runtime Exceptions
 Errors the runtime environment can catch – more
difficult to fix
 Semantic errors
 Your program runs but just doesn’t do the right
thing
 The trickiest one to fix!!
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Compiler Errors
 Syntax errors:
 Maybe missed a bracket/brace/semicolon or other necessary syntax element –
easy to fix
 Logical errors – could be tricky for newbies
 Method call inconsistent with method’s signature
 Access a variable beyond its scope
 No return statement in a method with a return type
 Put a non-boolean method in an if-statement
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How to fix Syntax Errors?
 Start at the top of the error list
 Use the line number
 If that line looks OK, check the lines above
Match or Count Brackets and Braces
{ qwdkj
{ dw wqdlk lqwd
{ n,mnwq
}
}
}
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012210
Braces match if the last == 0!
 Mouse click to match braces in pair if IDE has the functionality
– such as Processing
 Otherwise – count to match
Logical Errors
Method call inconsistent with method’s signature
 Signature: Bug(float x, float y, float chgX, float chgY, float sz)
 Wrong:
 bugs.add( new Bug() );
 AvatarBug(float x, float y, float chgX, float chgY, float sz) {
super(); //Bug is AvatarBug’s superclass
}
 Right:
 bugs.add( new Bug(random(width), random(height), random(-1, 1), random(-1, 1), random(12,
36)) );
 AvatarBug(float x, float y, float chgX, float chgY, float sz) {
super(x, y, chgX, chgY, sz);
}
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Logical Errors (1)
Access a variable beyond its scope
 The “scope” of a variable refers to the variable’s visibility
within a program
 Global variables: accessible from anywhere in the program (Try to
avoid whenever possible)
 Fields (member variables of a class): accessible from anywhere in the
class where they are declared (and its subclasses if public)
 Local variables: declared within a method or a code block within a
method, and accessible only within the method or the code block
 A common error: access local variables outside the method
that they are declared
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Logical Errors (2)
An Example:
 Declare a variable (e.g. avtBug) within one method:
void setup() {
AvatarBug avtBug = respawn();
}
 then try to access it in another method:
void playGame() {
if (rightKey) avtBug.moveRight();
}
 To fix:
 Declare avtBug as a field (i.e. declare it as a member variable that
is outside any method)
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Logical Errors (3)
No return statement in a method as the last statement for the type decleared
 The following method returns boolean but no return statement as the last statement inside it
boolean detectCollision(Bug otherBug) {
if ( abs(bugX-otherBug.bugX) < (bSize+otherBug.bSize) &&…) {
return true;
}
//??????????????
}
 To fix:
boolean detectCollision(Bug otherBug) {
if ( abs(bugX-otherBug.bugX)<(bSize+otherBug.bSize) && …) {
return true;
}
return false;
}
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Logical Errors (4)
 Or a better way to avoid this issue:
boolean detectCollision(Bug otherBug) {
boolean hit = false;
if ( abs(bugX-otherBug.bugX)<(bSize+otherBug.bSize) && …) {
hit = true;
}
return hit;
}
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Logical Errors (5)
Put a non-boolean method in an if–statement
 Wrong:
void detectBound() {
if (bugX+bSize > width ) bugX = width-bSize;
if (bugX-bSize < 0 ) bugX = bSize;
}
 To fix: either keep the signature, change the way to use it and
modify the logic inside
void detectBound() {
if (bugX+bSize > width ) { bugX = width-bSize;
speedX *= -1;
}
if (bugX-bSize < 0 ) { bugX = bSize;
speedX *= -1;
}}
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void draw() {
…
if( bugi.detectBound() ){
speedX *= -1;
}…
}
void draw() {
…
bugi.detectBound();
…
}

Logical Errors (6)
 Or keep the way to call it, change the signature and the logic inside:
void detectBound() {
boolean hit = false;
if (bugX+bSize > width ) { bugX = width-bSize;
hit = true;
}
if (bugX-bSize < 0 ) { bugX = bSize;
hit = true;
}
return hit;
}
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void draw() {
…
if( bugi.detectBound() ) {
speedX *= -1;
}
…
}
boolean
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Runtime Exceptions
Common Runtime Exceptions:
 NullPointerException and
IndexOutOfBoundsException
 Exceptions caused by semantic errors
 uninitialized variable, bad loop logic, …

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NullPointerException
 Normally because you’re accessing a reference variable (e.g. use it to
call a method) but failed to initialize it with an instance
 So the variable for the object is actually a pointer pointing to NULL
AvatarBug avtBug;
//failed to initialize it with an instance like:
//avtBug = new AvatarBug(width/2, height/2, 4,4,20);
avtBug.drawBug();
 NullPointerException!!
 To fix: Always initialize after declaring a reference variable!!

IndexOutOfBoundsException
 Normally it’s because you try to access an Array or ArrayList
position that goes beyond the max length of the array
 It becomes tricky when you try to use a fixed number as the control value
to access a resizable array like ArrayList
int count = 5;
for(int i=0; i< count; i++) {
Bug bugi = (Bug) bugs.get(i);
…
 To fix: use bugs.size() as controller
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X
size = 5
size = 4

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Semantic errors: Your program runs but just
doesn’t do the right thing
Approach 1:
 Use println() when dealing with “Your program just
doesn’t do the right thing”
 Print a string literal inside a method or a code block ({…})
to check if it really gets in there
 Print boolean expression, variables, array elements or
indexes, objects etc to check if the values are correct as
expected

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Semantic errors: Your program runs but just
doesn’t do the right thing (1)
Approach 2:
 Use Debugger tool of IDE *
 Enable Debugger (must set at least one breakpoint**) and then use key
ctrl+j to step over or ctrl+shift+j to step into a method to check if it really
gets executed
 Use the Watch window to look into variables, array values, array index,
objects etc to check if the values are as expected
* May get lost in the process for debugging interactive programs
** To set breakpoints in your source double-click on the small left margin in your
source code editor to toggle on/off

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#1 debugging tip
 TEST YOUR CODE OFTEN!!
 Code a little bit, Test a little bit, Make it work.
Repeat.
 Catching small errors early will help you avoid big
complicated errors later

Wrong and Right
 Build
 Build
 Build
 Build
 Build
 Build
 Test
 Build
 Test
 Build
 Test
 Build
 Test
 Build
 Test
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