Study Guide Advanced Composition By Robert G. Turner, Jr., Ph.D. About the Author Robert G. Turner, Jr., holds a B.S. in business and an M.S. and a Ph.D. in sociology. He has more than 20 years of teaching experience, mainly at the college level, and is currently serving as an adjunct professor at Virginia Tech, Blacksburg. Dr. Turner is primarily employed as a professional freelance writer. His literary credits include two stage plays, two novels, and two nonfiction works, along with an array of publications in academic and educational venues. Copyright © 2012 by Penn Foster, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of the material protected by this copyright may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the copyright owner. Requests for permission to make copies of any part of the work should be mailed to Copyright Permissions, Penn Foster, 925 Oak Street, Scranton, Pennsylvania 18515. Printed in the United States of America 09/30/15 All terms mentioned in this text that are known to be trademarks or service marks have been appropriately capitalized. Use of a term in this text should not be regarded as affecting the validity of any trademark or service mark. INSTRUCTIONS TO STUDENTS 1 LESSON ASSIGNMENTS 9 LESSON 1: PLANNING A PAPER WITH SOURCES 13 LESSON 2: FINDING SOURCES AND TAKING NOTES 31 LESSON 3: WRITING A PAPER USING SOURCES 49 LESSON 4: LITERARY ANALYSIS: : FIGURATIVE 71 LANGUAGE IN MUSIC AND SONG PREWRITING EXAMINATION 89 ESSAY EXAMINATION 95 LESSON 5: USING DEFINITION WITH 99 CLASSIFICATION EXAMINATION 107 LESSON 6: USING COMPARISON AND CONTRAST 111 IN NOVELS AND MOVIES PREWRITING EXAMINATION 121 ESSAY EXAMINATION 127 LESSON 7: WRITING AN ARGUMENT 131 EXAMINATION—COURSE FINAL 141 SELF-CHECK ANSWERS 147 APPENDIX 175 iii Contents Contents INTRODUCTION Welcome to your Advanced Composition course. In this course, you’ll practice research and writing skills by developing papers that require you to use sources and correctly cite them using MLA formatting. You’ll learn to look at writing with a critical eye—a skill you can apply to your own work, as well as to the reading you do for research or in your daily activities. You’ll apply these skills to your own writing through editing and revising. COURSE SYLLABUS Course name: Advanced Composition Course number: ENG 300 Instructors: See faculty listing in the Student Handbook. Hours: Monday through Friday, 9 A.M. to 7 P.M. Eastern Standard Time Contact information: After logging into your homepage at the student website, click Contact us. For email, choose Contact Your Instructor. You must type your email address correctly to ensure a reply to your question and include your student number in the message. You also must add [email protected] to the list of approved or accepted senders in your email browser. For the best instructional assistance, ask specific questions, explaining what you don’t understand and the particular page in the study materials or exam requirement that it relates to. Textbook: Kathleen T. McWhorter, Successful College Writing, Brief Fifth Edition 1 Instructions Instructions 2 Instructions to Students COURSE OBJECTIVES Primary objective: You’ll use research to plan, organize, develop, and edit a variety of papers with clarity and precision using standard MLA formatting. When you complete this course, you’ll be able to n Use the writing process to write essays using different patterns of development n Apply an appropriate rhetorical style to an audience and purpose n Write effective thesis statements n Develop paragraphs using topic sentences, adequate detail, supporting evidence, and transitions n Identify, define, and analyze literary elements n Develop critical reading skills n Use responsible research methods to locate appropriate secondary sources n Use Modern Language Association citation and documentation style to reference secondary source material correctly and appropriately n Quote, paraphrase, and summarize secondary source material correctly and appropriately n Use the conventions of standard written American English to produce correct, well-written essays Note: For Lesson 6, you’re required to read one novel that has been turned into a movie and to watch that movie. The list of movies made from books is extensive and includes To Kill a Mockingbird, The Princess Bride, and Girl with a Pearl Earring. (A short story or children’s book isn’t an appropriate selection. You must read a full-length novel.) Instructions to Students 3 A STUDY PLAN This study guide contains your lesson assignments and the exams for the seven lessons you’ll complete for this course. The self-checks at the end of each assignment will help you assess your understanding of the material so you’ll know whether you should move on to the next assignment or review the material before continuing. Study pace. You have a study time limit for the semester but not one specific to Advanced Composition. You must pace yourself wisely through the semester’s courses to meet the expiration date, allowing sufficient time for reading, prewriting, drafting, revising, and grading. Generally, you should allot at least two weeks for each English lesson, with some taking longer than that, and you must complete each exam in the correct order. The goal of this course is to help you grow as a writer by building on your strengths and improving your weaknesses with each assignment. Therefore, this course emphasizes the process approach to writing. Ideally, you’ll submit each exam in order after you’ve received your evaluation of the previous lesson so that you can apply the instructor’s feedback to your next writing project. You must successfully complete the prewriting assignments for Lessons 4 and 6 before you can submit the essays. While you’re waiting for evaluations, you should begin to work on the next lesson’s assignments. If you have other courses available for study, you may work on those materials while taking this English course and submit any completed exams. Organization. To keep your work for this course organized, create clearly labeled files in your word processing program. We recommend you create a primary file folder named “Advanced Composition.” Within that folder, create separate files, such as “Self-Checks” and “Course Notes.” Also create a folder for each written exam (Lessons 4, 5, 6, and 7), where you’ll keep files of your research notes, rough drafts, and final draft. Establish a clear naming system for each file so you don’t confuse early drafts with your final version of an essay. When you reopen a rough draft, immediately use “Save as” and add the date before further revision. That way you won’t lose anything you may delete but then wish you had kept. 4 Instructions to Students Exam submissions. Use the following guidelines when submitting your exams: n Multiple-choice examinations (Lessons 1, 2, and 3): You’ll submit your answers for these exams online. n Written examinations (Lessons 4, 5, 6, and 7): Unless the individual exam instructions specify otherwise, papers must be typed double-spaced using a standard, 12-point font and left justification. Use 1-inch margins at the top and bottom and 1.25-inch margins for the left and right sides of the document. Each page must have a header in the proper format, containing student name, student number with exam number, page number, mailing address, and email address. Jane Doe 23456789—50068000 5 987 Nice Street My Town, AZ 34567 [email protected] Name each document using your student number first, then the six-digit lesson number, and finally your name (for example, 23456789_500680 Jane Doe). Save your work as a Microsoft Word document or as a Rich Text Format (.rtf) file. Follow the instructions in the text on pages 637–639. Use “Instructor,” rather than an instructor’s name. The course is Advanced Composition ENG 300. Don’t use headings in the body of your paper. Exams can be submitted online from the student homepage using the Take Exam button next to the lesson number on the “My Courses” page. Check to be sure that the document you’ve uploaded is the one containing your final work for evaluation. When your paper is received into the exam system, it’s coded as RCD with the date received. Evaluation. Evaluation usually occurs within seven business days of receipt (from the RCD date code). Exams are scored according to the parameters of the exam assignment using the Advanced Composition Course Rubric, which is located in the Appendix of this study guide with a complete explanation of evaluation criteria and skill levels. Instructors may write feedback on both the essay and the evaluation chart. To read the instructor’s comments, click on the View Project button next to your grade for the exam and then download the Instructor Feedback file. Be sure to save this file to your computer since it’s available on your My Courses page for just a brief time. Instructions to Students 5 Evaluation Process Your instructors will score each writing assignment by applying the rubric shown on the next page to evaluate how well your work illustrates both the basic and advanced traits of good writing in various research settings (see Appendix). Although the basic techniques of writing aren’t taught in this course, you’re required to produce good writing. If you’re unsure of something, return to the textbook to fine-tune your skills. For more information, scan your textbook’s table of contents for a chapter breakdown and page numbers. For specific characteristics, use the index of your textbook. On the chart in the Appendix, each trait is broken into three skill levels explaining what writing at that level looks like and to what extent the writing shows that trait. Each skill level is assigned a score that corresponds to the appropriate letter grade within the Penn Foster College grading scale. (For information about the grading scale, see the Student Handbook.) As such, these scores don’t represent an amount awarded from a possible range of points. Instead, each score value is constant. That means if your writing exhibits the given characteristics, you automatically earn the designated score for that trait and skill level. Papers with inconsistencies among skill levels will be scored according to the middle ground. For example, you may have spelled and punctuated everything with excellent style but your grammar is poor. The evaluator will average the score of high Skill Realized for Conventions with the score of low Skill Emerging for the score on Conventions. Skill Emerging describes writing that either doesn’t have the trait or that lacks controlled, deliberate application. As below-average work, writing with traits at this level earns a D or an F. Skill Developing refers to writing which shows general competence in the trait but which lacks finesse or depth of understanding in application. Traits in this range earn a low B or a C. Skill Realized indicates the writing demonstrates the trait effectively and creatively, earning an A or a high B. 6 Instructions to Students When evaluating your paper, the instructor first reads through your essay to become familiar with its content and flow. He or she then works through the essay, evaluating both problem areas and strengths related to the rubric. Next, he or she fills out a blank evaluation chart identifying where your writing falls within each trait, relying on the descriptions in the Appendix to provide the full explanation of the traits your writing displays. Consequently, while reviewing your evaluated exam, you must refer to the following rubric. The instructor may provide further comments or explanation about a particular strength or weakness within a trait, but primarily you’ll depend on the information given in your study guide. In light of that feedback, you should reexamine your paper and review the textbook to learn ways to strengthen that trait the next time you write. With each exam, your goal is to craft your writing more deliberately and skillfully. Thesis: Focus for Audience and Purpose The thesis establishes a clearly defined, analytic focus unique to the assigned topic, purpose, and audience. Development and Structure of Ideas in Relation to Thesis Using applicable pattern(s) of development, the writer explores in depth the relationship between thesis, assertion, and evidence. The opening engages the reader with the thesis. The body paragraphs develop the thesis in a controlled fashion. The discussion closes with a sense of finality reinforcing the thesis. Incorporation of Source Material Paraphrases, summaries, and direct quotations are aptly integrated with the writer’s style for the purpose and audience. Sources are relevant and reliable. Overall Organization of Writing Transitional words and connective phrasing guide the reader through the relationships between ideas. Each paragraph contains one idea that supports the thesis. The supporting sentences connect to/develop the paragraph’s focus. Word Choice and Presentation Style The writer shows a consistent point of view, captivating the reader with skillful, precise language for the purpose and audience. The essay is graceful and easy to read aloud with a natural, pleasant rhythm through varied sentence length and structures. MLA Citation Using the MLA citation style, the writer accurately documents the required number of sources. Conventions According to standard written American English, the writer correctly applies spelling, punctuation (including sentence structure), and grammar. These choices make the writing professional and easy to understand. The writing meets the required length and overall submission format for the assignment. 7 Retakes. Students are required to complete all assigned work, including a retake for any first-time failing attempt on an exam. The evaluation of any first-time failing exam will include a Required Retake form. That form must then be included with your retake exam submission to ensure proper handling. If the assigned work isn’t provided, submissions will be evaluated according to the criteria but additional points will be deducted for not following the instructions. In addition, please review school policy about retakes in the Student Handbook (available online). Plagiarism policy. Carefully review the plagiarism policy in the Student Handbook (available online). The first submission that departs from this policy earns a grade of 1 percent. If it’s a first-time submission, you may retake the exam (per retake procedures). A second such submission on any subsequent exam means failure of the Advanced Composition course. ACADEMIC SUPPORT AND ONLINE RESOURCES Penn Foster’s digital library offers students access to online resources in all major disciplines and courses offered at Penn Foster, as well as one of the most comprehensive academic databases available today, Expanded Academic ASAP. Learn more about the library here: How-To Guide— http://community.pennfoster.edu/docs/DOC-57990 Top 3 things— http://community.pennfoster.edu/docs/DOC-58013 Digital Library FAQ— http://community.pennfoster.edu/docs/DOC-58011 Citation Information— https://community.pennfoster.edu/docs/DOC-58115 Penn Foster’s librarian is available to answer questions about research and to help students locate resources. You can find her in The Community, by using the Contact an Instructor link in the Help Center in your student portal, and the Ask a Librarian link in the library. 8 Lesson Assignments Penn Foster has partnered with the tutoring service Smarthinking to provide support for students including writing, science, math, and business. Smarthinking is available to all Penn Foster students through the link in the Help Center on their student portal. Smarthinking tutors are experts in their subject areas and can provide general help with courses and papers. They are not, however, Penn Foster employees, so students must be sure to clearly explain the purpose of an assignment to get the best possible results from their tutoring sessions. Students can live chat with tutors to ask questions about course material. Students can also take advantage of the Writing Center and upload a paper for review before submitting it to Penn Foster for grading. You’ll need to check the Drop-In Tutoring schedule for hours of service for live chats, but you can submit a question at any time and a tutor will reply. Consider adding Smarthinking to your academic routine; tutoring can help even the best students enhance their education. Grammarly.com is offering discounts to Penn Foster students who register for a year of service. For $40 (a $95 savings), Penn Foster students have unlimited access to the Grammarly’s grammar, spell, and punctuation check, as well as the plagiarism check. For students who have limited experience with research writing, Grammarly could be the helping hand you need to negotiate the research papers in your future. Other online resources for grammar, punctuation, sentence structure, and mechanics include the following: Daily Grammar http://www.dailygrammar.com/archive.shtml Blue Book of Grammar and Mechanics http://www.grammarbook.com/ Guide to Grammar and Writing, sponsored by Capital Community College Foundation http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/index2.htm Purdue University’s Online Writing Lab http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/ Please contact your English instructor for registration information Lesson 1: Planning a Paper with Sources For Read in the Read in study guide: the textbook: Assignment 1 Pages 13–16 Pages 575–578 Assignment 2 Pages 17–21 Pages 578–583 Assignment 3 Pages 22–24 Pages 583–587 Assignment 4 Pages 24–28 Pages 587–593 Assignment 5 Pages 28–30 Pages 46–65 and 89–93 Examination 500439 Material in Lesson 1 Lesson 2: Finding Sources and Taking Notes For Read in the Read in study guide: the textbook: Assignment 6 Pages 32–35 Pages 595–603 Assignment 7 Pages 36–38 Pages 603–606 Assignment 8 Pages 39–45 Pages 606–615 Assignment 9 Pages 46–48 Pages 102–115 Examination 500440 Material in Lesson 2 Lesson 3: Writing a Paper Using Sources For Read in the Read in study guide: the textbook: Assignment 10 Pages 50–54 Pages 621–630 Assignment 11 Pages 54–59 Pages 630–636 Assignment 12 Pages 60–62 Pages 636–640 Assignment 13 Pages 63–66 Pages 640–662 Assignment 14 Pages 67–69 Pages 115–118 and 125–133 Watch the Using and Citing Sources Lecture Quiz 500697 Examination 500441 Material in Lesson 3 Lesson Assignments 9 Assignments Assignments Lesson 4: Literary Analysis: Figurative Language in Music and Song For Read in the Read in study guide: the textbook: Assignment 15 Pages 71–74 Pages 166–179 Assignment 16 Pages 75–77 Pages 182–194 Assignment 17 Pages 78–85 Pages 684–689 and 698–704 Assignment 18 Pages 85–88 Pages 152–157 and 309–312 Watch the Figurative Language Analysing Poetry Lecture Quiz 500698 Prewriting Examination: 50046800 Essay Examination: 50044200 Lesson 5: Using Definition with Classification For Read in the Read in study guide: the textbook: Assignment 19 Pages 99–102 Pages 410–416 and 420–426 Assignment 20 Pages 103–105 Pages 442–453 Examination 50044300 10 Lesson Assignments 11 Lesson 6: Using Comparison and Contrast in Novels and Movies For Read in the Read in study guide: the textbook: Assignment 21 Pages 112–113 Pages 374–384 Assignment 22 Pages 114–115 Pages 384–396 Assignment 23 Pages 115–117 Pages 396–407 and 615–619 Assignment 24 Pages 117–120 Pages 688–698 Watch the Using Comparison and Contrast/Analyzing a Novel Lecture Quiz 500699 Prewriting Examination: 50046900 Essay Examination: 50044400 Lesson 7: Writing an Argument For Read in the Read in study guide: the textbook: Assignment 25 Pages 131–133 Pages 514–520 Assignment 26 Pages 134–136 Pages 520–533 Assignment 27 Pages 137–139 Pages 544–557 Assignment 28 Pages 139–140 Pages 568–571 Final Examination: 50044500 Note: To access and complete any of the examinations for this study guide, click on the appropriate Take Exam icon on your “My Courses” page. You should not have to enter the examination numbers. These numbers are for reference only if you have reason to contact Student Services. Note: For Lesson 6, you’re required to read one novel that has been turned into a movie and to watch that movie. The list of movies made from books is extensive and includes To Kill a Mockingbird, The Princess Bride, and Girl with a Pearl Earring. (A short story or children’s book isn’t an appropriate selection. You must read a full-length novel.) 12 Advanced Composition NOTES Lesson 1 13 Planning a Paper with Sources INTRODUCTION The writer Isaac Asimov is said to have written many of his popular-science books without doing any research. But Asimov was a professor of biochemistry and vice president of Mensa International, an organization for people with exceptionally high intelligence. While most of us use the reservoir of knowledge and experience in our minds when we write, it’s unlikely that the average person can write competently and extensively using only that mental filing cabinet. Even if you think you know something—for example, a quote you memorized long ago—when you check it against the original, it may not be precisely as you remembered it. That’s why we use sources to check, and while we’re checking, we may find additional information that’s relevant to our topics. Research papers aren’t busy work. You’ll learn not only how to think, write, and organize, but also how to pay attention to detail, communicate your ideas to others, and find support for your ideas. The skills used in developing a research paper are all transferable to the job market. OBJECTIVES When you complete this lesson, you’ll be able to n Develop a feasible topic n Frame useful research questions n Establish a working thesis statement n Read actively and critically to analyze sources n Identify bias and recognize the difference between fact and opinion n Explain the difference between primary and secondary sources Lesson 1 Lesson 1 14 Advanced Composition ASSIGNMENT 1: USING SOURCES Read the following assignment. Then read pages 575–578 in your textbook. Be sure to complete the self-check to gauge your progress. INTRODUCTION People in any society depend on each other for sustenance of all kinds. That’s definitely true in the world of scholars. Those who acquire and express ideas through the written word rely on many resources, and they understand the need to acknowledge the work of other thinkers and writers. Like Isaac Asimov, they may have assimilated a lot of general knowledge and made conclusions of their own; but anytime a writer borrows ideas and words directly from another person, that person must be cited as the source for those ideas. When you write a research paper, you develop your idea by searching for similar ideas to back it up. As you locate sources to support your thesis, you recognize that all the ideas aren’t your own, so you make it clear which ones are and which are not. This practice applies no matter the type or date of the source. READING HIGHLIGHTS Quick Starts. These opening exercises for each chapter aren’t assigned activities, but pause to read each one before beginning the chapter reading. Pages 575–578. The sources you select for your research will fall into two distinct categories. Primary sources come from “the horse’s mouth.” That is, the information is available in a first-person document or recording, rather than a quote or interpretation by another person. Such sources are considered extremely reliable. Primary sources include letters, speeches, diaries, the writings of scientists and philosophers, and many other types of text or records. It may be a personal account of a battle or an interview with a celebrity. Lesson 1 15 Here are some examples: n A letter from James Madison to his wife Dolley n Abraham Lincoln’s second inaugural address n A diary kept by a soldier during the Korean War n The poetry of Emily Dickinson n A radio broadcast from a reporter observing the destruction of the Hindenburg n Albert Einstein’s published papers on the special theory of relativity Secondary sources either support or comment on primary sources. They may serve your purpose better than primary sources if you’re looking for authority to back up an argument. If an original manuscript of a play is the primary source, then a critical essay discussing the work is the secondary source. An author interested in the life of Samuel Adams would consult as many primary sources (actual writings by Adams himself) as he or she could before writing a biography of Adams. If you used the resulting biography as a source for your paper, that would be a secondary source. The author may have quoted the primary sources and collected facts from them, but he or she also went on to interpret and draw conclusions from the material. Even when using primary sources, you must be careful of translations. For example, Plato’s dialogues have been translated differently by different scholars; Emily Dickinson’s poems were arbitrarily edited in early editions. You may have to do further research to determine the professional reputation of the translator or editor. Also be careful with websites; it’s often difficult to verify the credentials of a website’s author(s). Examples of secondary sources include n Ken Burns’ documentary, The Civil War n An Encyclopedia Britannica article on Freud’s theories n Rome: The Biography of a City by Christopher Hibbert 16 Advanced Composition Pages 577–578. A research paper, like any other type of conventional writing, needs a structure. Facts, statistics, and other details have to be fitted together so they flow logically and create a meaningful article, narrative, or commentary. Using the framework of your thesis, you must seek out information to support your ideas, choosing evidence that best supports each point in your thesis. Just as every line of dialogue in a screenplay is designed to move or inform the plot, every source you use must contribute to developing your thesis. Your in-text citations also must fit into the flow, providing the necessary information in the correct form. MLA style is the preferred approach to parenthetical in-text citations in English and the humanities, and it’s what you’ll use in this course. Chapter 23 provides a guide. Take a few moments to skim through the MLA section. Review Figures 21.1 and 21.2 on pages 578–579 for a visual of the systematic way you need to approach locating and using sources. In particular, note all the ways information can be extracted and used during the research and writing process. Self-Check 1 At the end of each section of Advanced Composition, you’ll be asked to pause and check your understanding of what you’ve just read by completing a “Self-Check” exercise. Keep your answers in your self-check file or a separate notebook. Answering these questions will help you review what you’ve studied so far. Please complete Self-Check 1 now. 1. Write a brief paragraph differentiating primary and secondary sources and give one example of each. Then, in a second paragraph, describe the advantages and disadvantages of secondary sources. 2. Using an example for each, describe how to acknowledge sources in an MLA-style essay or research paper. 3. What element of a research paper determines its boundaries, guides its development, and establishes its objective? Check your answers with those on page 147. Lesson 1 17 ASSIGNMENT 2: PLANNING YOUR PAPER Read the following assignment. Then read pages 578–583 of Chapter 21 in your textbook. Be sure to complete the selfcheck to gauge your progress. INTRODUCTION Complete freedom to choose a topic might make the job of planning a paper harder, not easier. Your assignment will give you some limits to work within and some description of what’s expected, so begin planning your paper by defining the assignment. First, think about the objective of the paper. A good place to start is with the verbs—what are they asking you to do? Verbs like describe, persuade or convince, or compare and contrast tell you what you need to accomplish with the paper, as well as what primary pattern of development to apply. Once you have your objective clearly in mind, you’ll be able to explore appropriate sources. READING HIGHLIGHTS Review Figures 21.1 and 21.2 on pages 578–579, which show you the steps involved in writing a paper using sources. This chapter’s skills are outlined in detail. The basic steps in selecting, narrowing, and discovering ideas for a research topic are similar to methods used in any other essay writing. They include preliminary reading, prewriting, and viewing your topic from different perspectives. Pages 578–583. In this section, you’ll study five practical guidelines for choosing an appealing and feasible topic. Consider what these recommendations mean to you. After defining the assignment, and perhaps above all, it makes sense to choose a topic that interests you. However, in actual experience, some topics may seem interesting at first glance, but then seem less interesting as you learn more. In other cases, a random idea or topic may catch your attention 18 Advanced Composition while you’re exploring on the Internet or in an online catalog at the library. That’s why seeking out an interesting topic requires an open mind, as the following scenario shows. Think through it carefully, because it will reappear as this lesson proceeds. Your composition teacher requires you to develop a paper with some connection to Central Africa, leaving the details to your interests. You’re interested in what motivated Joseph Conrad when he wrote The Heart of Darkness. The novel contrasts the mentality of Westerners to the apparently random savagery of Central Africa, where nature seems to overwhelm the order and reason of civilization. You do some Internet searching, but, as you do, you find that English graduate students and scholars of all kinds have written mountains of material on this topic. Not only would the topic be unmanageable, it’s also unlikely that you could come up with a fresh perspective on the topic. However, you do find that the film Apocalypse Now is based on Conrad’s book. Now you may be on to something. But soon the same problem arises. You’ll have to know Conrad literary criticism inside out to write anything fresh and engaging about the film. So your search continues. Then, skimming a page on Central Africa, you discover that civil war and mass murder in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) (formerly Zaire) involve international corporate interest in a mineral called columbite-tantalite, popularly known as coltan. You’ve never heard of coltan, but a quick Internet search reveals that coltan is essential to the production of cell phones and other electronic products. Quickly searching some more, you find that the topic yields sources, the topic is fresh and current (but not too new, since there’s information available), and it seems manageable. Lesson 1 19 As you know, a reasoned approach to narrowing and discovering ideas about a topic is preliminary reading, prewriting, and viewing your topic from different perspectives. You’re interested in the coltan issue and so far, in your preliminary reading, you’ve unearthed the following facts: n Coltan is a mineral that combines niobium and tantalum. Tantalum is a rare metal that’s a crucial component of the transistors used in cell phones and in some other technological contexts. n As the demand for coltan has soared, so has its price in international markets. n Roughly 80 percent of the global supply of coltan is found in the far eastern highland regions of the Democratic Republic of Congo. n The Democratic Republic of Congo is the third-largest African nation. Its capital, Kinshasa, is near the mouth of the Congo River, far to the west of the highland region. n The government centered at Kinshasa oversees a land of poverty and political corruption. n The coltan mining region borders Uganda, Rwanda, and Burundi. n A brutal civil war, characterized by rape, torture, and random murder, disrupts the entire coltan mining region. n The violence is strongly related to the smuggling of coltan from the DRC. n International interests, out of Belgium and other nations, will buy the coltan wherever they can get it. n Efforts by the United Nations and other nations to contain the violence have had little or no success. n The mining is creating extensive environmental destruction. n The habitat of the endangered Eastern Lowland Gorilla is being destroyed by the mining operations. 20 Advanced Composition At this point, you can think about different perspectives on the general topic of coltan mining. Different points of view and, therefore, different narrowed topics can be explored by using research questions. For example, n What’s the history of Western colonialism in this region? n What are the uses of coltan? n What cultural and sociological impacts does coltan mining bring about? n What’s the economic importance of coltan locally and globally? n Who benefits from the use of coltan? n What’s the environmental impact of coltan mining? n What parties are responsible for the smuggling and how are they involved in the civil war (to what advantage)? Clearly, addressing all of those aspects of the coltan issue would be unmanageable within the limits of a relatively brief research paper. You’ll need to create a working thesis that helps you narrow your topic. Reviewing all of your questions, you decide to concentrate on the environmental issue. You write, “Regional conflicts in Africa are threatening the last habitat of the rare Eastern Lowland Gorilla.” To develop this thesis, you have to confine yourself to summarizing the coltan issue while focusing on the Eastern Lowland Gorilla and its threatened habitat. Now you need new research questions for your narrowed topic. They might include n What’s the Eastern Lowland Gorilla’s habitat like? n How is the mining affecting it? n How long has the habitat destruction been going on? n Can the damage be reversed? n How else can the gorillas be protected? Lesson 1 21 Self-Check 2 Use this background material to complete the self-check. Keep your answers in your self-check file or a separate notebook. n According to Queensland’s Environmental Protection Agency, more than 90 percent of the species that have existed on Earth are now extinct. n Natural habitats and particular species have been affected by human activity, sometimes leading to the extinction of a species (bison, mountain lions, and gray wolves are nearly wiped out). n Over millions of years, many species died out when they couldn’t adapt to an environment altered by climate change. n Natural selection is the process by which species develop traits favorable to survival within a particular habitat. 1. Review the material under “View Your Topic from Different Perspectives” on page 581. Use Exercise 21.1 on page 581 for reference. To address the topic “extinction of animal species,” list one or more questions each from the perspective of biology, geology, history, and economy. 2. After reviewing the material on pages 582–583, create a working thesis and at least three research questions to address one of the perspectives further. Check your answers with those on page 148. 22 Advanced Composition ASSIGNMENT 3: SELECTING AND EVALUATING USEFUL SOURCES Read the following assignment. Then study pages 583–587 in Chapter 21 of your textbook. Be sure to complete the self-check to gauge your progress. INTRODUCTION Before you begin your search for sources, make sure you have a copy of your working thesis and your research questions in front of you. Refer to it each time you locate a potential source, and make sure it’s relevant to your topic before you print or copy any articles or borrow any books. While you may not want to take time to thoroughly read each piece, at least look in a book’s index to see if your topic is covered and scan any item you believe you need. The information you find might be a repetition of something you already have, it may be out of date, or it may be too general for your needs. Select only those sources that you’re likely to use before closely reading the source. An Internet search engine may be your favorite place to find information quickly, but don’t depend too heavily on the articles you find there. A lot of the best, in-depth information for a research paper is found only in print sources. Make sure you consult your library’s “search engine”—the reference librarian. He or she can show you where to find excellent sources online as well as in print. Make a point of choosing at least a few print sources, particularly when you need primary sources. READING HIGHLIGHTS Page 584. When is a source relevant? Use common sense. If the source helps you answer one of your research questions, it’s relevant. But remember to consider your audience, your thesis, and the timeliness of your source. The school’s library provides access to many print sources online through the Expanded Academic ASAP periodical database. Use the library link from your homepage at the school’s website. Lesson 1 23 Your audience and your purpose—the way you intend to develop your thesis—will affect the sources and information you choose to review and to include in your paper. Suppose you’re looking at the pros and cons of DNA testing in crime investigations. A scientific work in population genetics might be too technical for your audience. A mainstream magazine article on how DNA testing is used in novels or television programs may be biased and misleading. Your most relevant sources will be articles from law enforcement agencies or civil rights organizations that focus on this issue. Also remember that the world changes quickly, particularly in respect to technology. When evaluating a source, you may find that it’s simply out of date. On the other hand, older sources may be helpful if you’re researching the historical background of an issue. Pages 584–585. How can you decide if a source is reliable? Your text offers you four guidelines. In general, scholarly sources are more factual and balanced than general-interest sources. Some news sources are considered reliable—The New York Times has a better reputation than a supermarket tabloid, and a website that ends in .edu is more reliable than a blog. A good source names the author, so you can check his or her credentials. But even among scientists and scholars, judgments and opinions differ. You may have to check facts and other opinions to tell whether an article is biased, but be aware of your own biases, too. Pages 585–587. The techniques for evaluating Internet sources aren’t much different from those used for evaluating print sources. The main difference is that the accuracy, purpose, and timeliness of Internet sources can be somewhat difficult to evaluate. If you can’t verify a fact or a site’s credibility, it’s best not to use it. Note: Study Table 21.1 page 586. Notice the different purposes of the websites, as well as questions to guide your evaluation of the site before you use the information you find there. Sometimes a commercial URL seems to be offering a factual report when it’s actually just a public-relations piece. 24 Advanced Composition ASSIGNMENT 4: ANALYZING SOURCES AND WORKING WITH TEXT Read the following assignment. Then read pages 587–593 in Chapter 21 of your textbook. Be sure to complete the selfcheck to gauge your progress. Most of this section is devoted to detecting bias. You’ll review your concept of identifying bias and determine when an idea presented as a fact is actually an opinion. You’ll also search out underlying assumptions, many of which are implied rather than explicit, and review the skills needed for reading sources. Self-Check 3 In your self-check file or notebook, complete the following exercises. 1. In a paragraph, explain the difference between relevant and reliable sources to support the thesis of a research paper or essay. Use examples to support your ideas. 2. Complete Exercise 21.3 on page 585. 3. List three questions you could use to evaluate the accuracy of an Internet source. 4. Which of the following will probably contain the most objective data? a. A report with charts documenting hourly wage rates by an occupational group b. A memoir about working in a coal mine c. An editorial in The Washington Post d. A letter rebutting an article in a medical journal 5. You may consider an article from an Internet source reliable if the article a. first appeared in a print source or publication. b. contains the author’s name and the publication date. c. provides documented information. d. is published by a national association. Check your answers with those on page 142 9. Lesson 1 25 READING HIGHLIGHTS Pages 588–589. There are opinions and there are facts, but there’s no definitive line between the two. For instance, the distance from Earth to our Moon is 238,855 miles—sometimes. When its orbit is closest to Earth, it’s only 225,780 miles away. Statistical facts are always off by a mathematically determined margin of error. But if the sample is correctly taken, a statistic can be called a fact—even though that fact may change next week. Very few facts are incontrovertible. You may say that men are physically stronger than women, and that may be true on the average, but there will be many exceptions among individuals. Not all opinions have equal weight, either. An opinion based on empirical evidence matters more than an opinion based on an unsupported belief. For example, if an agronomist who is also a meteorologist states that the Iowa corn harvest will be down 10 to 12 percent this year, her expert opinion is more significant than that of a man next to you in the grocery line. Be sure to read the boxed example of facts and opinions on page 588. Pages 589–590. People naturally have opinions and favored points of view. But are all viewpoints biased? Well, yes, but there are degrees of bias. It may be possible to determine that viewpoint X is better supported than viewpoint Y, and a balanced journalistic comparison of X and Y could be relatively free of bias. Regardless, there are three things to remember about opinions. First, recognize that you have biases of your own, and try to keep an open mind. Second, a clear argument in favor of a viewpoint can still be a reliable and relevant source. Third, when in doubt, seek out alternative viewpoints supported by logical, reasoned, and substantial evidence. Pages 590–592. Generalizations and assumptions are related, but you need to understand how they’re different. A generalization is an interpretation of a set of facts. Therefore, a generalization can be valid. For example, the assertion that children who grow up in poverty are more likely to be malnourished is probably a valid generalization, at least in statistical terms—if it’s based on factual data that’s been correctly gathered and analyzed. But now consider two other versions of this assertion: 26 Advanced Composition Children who grow up in poverty are always malnourished. This isn’t a generalization because “always” makes it a categorical statement—there are no exceptions. Clearly, there are instances of poor children who aren’t malnourished. Therefore, the generalization is invalid. Young people who grow up in poverty are delinquent more often than middle-class children. Reread this sentence. Does it appeal to your intuition? If it does, you may have been misled. Actual sociological data suggests that the likelihood of being labeled delinquent is higher among the poor. However, the frequency of delinquent acts is similar for both middleclass and poor children. Now imagine an article or research paper with this thesis: “Rates of delinquency can be reduced by reducing poverty.” If the author doesn’t supply sociological studies that define the issues, the whole argument will be based on a false assumption. Keep in mind that assumptions like these often establish the foundation for a thesis, so you should be prepared to evaluate an author’s assumptions, as well as your own. Pages 592–593. When you read a textbook, you’re seeking knowledge about specific concepts. By contrast, you’ll read sources to find information that will answer your research questions. That’s why you should read sources selectively, skipping over material that isn’t relevant to your working thesis. By skimming for keywords or phrases, you’ll pick out what you need more quickly. You read the title, an introductory paragraph, the headings, the graphics, and key terms or phrases. Make sure you read the last paragraph—it will often be a summary of the article. Later you can carefully read the articles you chose and take notes. Make sure you mark any copies or printouts with the information you’ll need for your in-text citations and works-cited page. As sources, websites offer some unique challenges, particularly in the way they’re laid out. You’ll have to scroll through the homepage to see what links and features are offered. While you do, try to avoid the temptation to get too absorbed in browsing. Keep your mind focused on your topic and stay alert for information related to your working thesis. Lesson 1 27 Reminder: For Lesson 6, you must read a book that was later made into a movie. You also need to watch the movie. If you haven’t yet made a choice and begun reading, do so before you begin Lesson 2. Self-Check 4 Label each of the following statements as fact (F), opinion (O), or expert opinion (EO). ______ 1. A Gallup poll indicated that 60 percent of respondents agree that it’s better to marry someone who shares similar interests. ______ 2. According to Dr. Howard Gardner of Harvard University, there are at least eight different kinds of intelligence. ______ 3. The Great Smoky Mountains of Tennessee offer unsurpassed opportunities for landscape photography. ______ 4. The attention span of adults is about 20 minutes. ______ 5. Mexico City is one the world’s most populous cities. ______ 6. Denver, the so-called Mile-High City, is the site of a U.S. government mint. ______ 7. It’s understood that, on average, women are more familiar with cooking than men. ______ 8. In 1852, since President Franklin Pierce was greedy to expand U.S. influence, he offered to buy the island of Cuba. ______ 9. Although Mozart died in poverty, his music remains immortal. Label each of the following as fact (F) or generalization (G). Indicate what kind of support or documentation would be necessary for you to evaluate each statement’s accuracy. ______ 10. Most people who live in San Francisco hold far-left political views. ______ 11. Jupiter’s atmosphere is rich in methane. ______ 12. People in many nations opposed the invasion of Iraq. ______ 13. Africa has a bright future because it’s rich in natural resources. ______ 14. The average summer temperature in Seattle is 72 degrees Fahrenheit. (Continued) 28 Advanced Composition ASSIGNMENT 5: ACTIVEREADING REVIEW Read the following assignment. Then, in your text, read Chapter 3, “Reading in College,” on pages 46–65. In Chapter 4, “Responding Critically to Text and Images,” read “A Guide to Responding to Text” on pages 86–93. Be sure to complete the self-check to gauge your progress. As you may recall, there are two parts to the reading process. First, you must comprehend what the author says, and second, you must figure out what the author means. Interpreting the author’s use of words and their connotations or symbolism isn’t always as straightforward as it may seem. No matter how scholarly an article seems, you must approach it with a critical eye. Sorting out facts and opinions or generalizations and valid conclusions comes easier with practice. You’ll become more skillful in active reading the more you use it. Self-Check 4 15. In one or two short paragraphs, identify and explain what assumption or assumptions you find in the following paragraph. I love man as my fellow; but his scepter, real or usurped, extends not to me, unless the reason of an individual demands my homage; and even then the submission is to reason, and not to man. In fact, the conduct of an accountable being must be regulated by the operations of its own reason; or on what foundation rests the throne of God? —Mary Wollstonecraft (1759–1797), excerpt from A Vindication of the Rights of Women (Second Revised Edition, 1792) Check your answers with those on page 150. READING HIGHLIGHTS Pages 47–48. Take note of the four common misconceptions about active reading. Remember that not everything you see in print is true. Approach what you read with a good sense of what you’re looking for. When in doubt, read difficult paragraphs more than once. Keep alert to material that’s relevant to your purpose. Pages 48–50. Active readers preview material with a purpose in mind, turn headings into questions that need answers, and are careful to review what needs reviewing. Make sure you review Figure 3.1 on page 49. It gives you an overview of the active reading process. Notice its application to the previous discussion on locating and using research material. Also, read the feature box at the top of page 50 to compare the attitudes of passive and active readers. Pages 50–52. The essay “American Jerk” permits you to clearly understand the parts of an essay that should be scanned in the previewing process. Which paragraphs are read completely? What part of other paragraphs is read? Pages 52–57. Read with a purpose. Remember to form questions to guide your reading and to search for key elements. A repeat of the “American Jerk” essay, on pages 54–55, walks you through the search for key elements, naming them in the margin comments. The thesis statement is highlighted. Practice looking for key elements in a short opinion piece. Pages 57–61. Not all texts or all graphics are “user friendly.” Table 3.1 on page 59 offers you a list of useful approaches to difficult text. Remember that creating a graphic organizer—a visual graph that breaks down the content of a difficult text into key elements—is one of your options. Review Figure 3.2 on page 60 and Figure 3.3 on page 61. Pages 62–65. Chapter 3 ends with “Combat High,” an essay by Sebastian Junger. If you’ve ever wondered how soliders feel about combat, you’ll find the essay fascinating. Before reading the essay, study the directions on page 62. For item 1, which will appear in the self-check, preview the essay following the steps on page 49. You may want to do item 2 for practice, following the directions and jotting down a few ideas and impressions. 29 30 Advanced Composition Pages 86–88. Active reading can be likened to a two-way conversation. An essay like “Combat High” raises questions and forms impressions. Posing questions about what you’re reading and reflecting on your impressions is your side of the conversation. Study Figure 4.3 on page 87. It provides an overview of an active response to a reading. Notice the three primary stages of the active reading process. Self-Check 5 In your self-check file or notebook, complete the following exercises. 1. Turn to page 62 in your text. Refer back to the instructions that precede the reading. After previewing the Junger essay, respond with at least three questions to guide your reading. Read the following paragraph and respond to the questions that follow. Prior to 1600, Japan was generally divided into regions ruled by warlords. However, from 1600 on, and for several centuries, Japan was united under a dynasty of shoguns of the Tokugawa clan. Having adopted the musket by way of Portuguese traders, the Tokugawa shoguns organized armies that succeeded in maintaining political unity. However, for a time, Tokugawa hegemony was threatened. In particular, Western missionaries had succeeded in converting large numbers of Japanese to Christianity. In response to this threat, the shoguns took steps. First, they established Confucianism as the state religion. As they did this, they also got busy persecuting native Christians and Western traders. By 1650, it was illegal to build seagoing ships and Japanese were effectively forbidden from traveling abroad. 2. Were shoguns warlords? If not, what Western equivalent title or function could you assign to the term shogun? 3. What does the term dynasty imply? 4. By what means did the Tokugawa shoguns enforce political unity? 5. In terms of long-term historical or social patterns, what implications might you infer from the last sentence of the paragraph? Check your answers with those on page 151. Lesson 2 31 Finding Sources and Taking Notes INTRODUCTION Many students have been trained to think that the first thing they need to do when they have a research assignment is to visit libraries, log onto the Internet, or interview other people in search of information. But you yourself are an important source of information—in fact, you should be the first source of ideas for your research project. No matter what subject or topic you’re researching, you probably have some knowledge or ideas about it. That’s why we covered the various ways to generate ideas, consider different perspectives from which to view topics, and develop research questions—all before you looked for any source material. This lesson guides you through the next phase of the process— locating, choosing, and using sources to develop and support your narrowed topic (your working thesis). We begin at the library, a resource often neglected because Google searches are so easy. For an academic research paper, however, the library is your most essential tool and should act as the starting point for your search process. Use your local library (and, in particular, the reference librarian) as well as virtual libraries, such as the college’s library (click the Library Services link on your student page) or others including Internet Public Library http://www.ipl.org The WWW Virtual Library http://vlib.org Library Index http://www.libdex.com OBJECTIVES When you complete this lesson, you’ll be able to n Use keywords, library catalogs, databases, and periodical indexes to locate sources in the library n Locate and evaluate sources on the Internet Lesson 2 Lesson 2 32 Advanced Composition n Describe techniques for choosing and narrowing a topic n Take effective notes from sources n Explain techniques for gathering citation information n Correctly paraphrase information taken from sources n Properly record direct quotations n Explain plagiarism and how to use sources ethically n Prepare an annotated bibliography ASSIGNMENT 6: USING LIBRARY SOURCES Read the following assignment. Then read pages 595–603 in Chapter 22 of your textbook. Be sure to complete the selfcheck to gauge your progress. Carefully study the material under “Locating Useful Library Sources.” Refer to it often as you learn to locate useful library sources. READING HIGHLIGHTS Pages 596–597. The best way to learn your way around a library is to tour a library. Ask for a map or floor plan at the circulation desk. Take some time to look around. Locate the stacks, the periodical section, and the microfiche and microfilm resources. Talk to the reference librarians about the types of resources they offer. Ask about the library’s website and how to link to the library catalog or databases to which the library subscribes. Study Figure 22.1 on page 597. It will guide you through the steps involved in researching your topic. Pages 597–598. Quite often, library resources such as catalogs and journals are located on databases. To search efficiently, remember to use keywords to access information in a database of any kind. Suppose you enter the word “Napoleon” into a computer linked to a database and press Go or Search. The keyword will bring up a list of resources Lesson 2 33 that contain the word “Napoleon”—probably hundreds or thousands of them. If you’ve already narrowed your topic, add the area of your focus, such as “unification” or “Napoleonic Code” to limit the number of sources to those most likely to be useful. Each database links keywords to subject matter in different ways; your reading will help you understand some of those differences. In general, keywords are words or phrases related to your topic. If you’ve used search engines like Google or Yahoo, you’re already familiar with the concept. You’ll need to keep in mind that library resource databases often categorize information under subject headings. The issue here for a researcher is the fact that subject headings, like substance abuse or financial services, may be quite distant from keywords you might use to look for information on an Internet search engine. When information is arranged under subject headings, you might want to use a strategy suggested in your text. For example, if your topic is the causes of residential segregation, you could look enter key words or subject headings like urban racial segregation, mortgage red-lining, or urban renewal. Pages 598–600. You can use a library catalog to locate books and, in many cases, periodicals, newspapers, government documents, and electronic sources (websites). The illustrations in Figures 22.2 and 22.3 show sample search pages and search results. However, your library’s format and procedures for accessing the library’s catalog may differ. Check the menus on the monitor screen to help you get started, but always ask for help if you don’t know how to begin or can’t find what you want on the menus. Pages 600–603. A bibliography is a list of books, articles, documents, web-posted articles, and other resources related to a particular topic. In performing keyword searches, you can locate a bibliography by attaching that term to a subject. For example, to locate sources on Walt Whitman, you could enter “Bibliography Walt Whitman” in the search window. 34 Advanced Composition Indexes of periodicals may be general or specialized. They’re accessible online or from a CD-ROM. The Reader’s Guide to Periodical Literature lists more than 200 popular publications dating from 1900, although they’re not very useful for academic research. InfoTrac databases access thousands of periodical sources. You have access to several databases through the Library Services link on your student homepage. Full-text articles may be directly accessed if they’re offered in HTML. Articles in PDF files require Adobe Acrobat Reader to view or print the material. Make sure you have this free download on your computer. Specialized periodical indexes and abstracts generally list technical and academic articles within a specific academic discipline, such as art history, biology, or education. The Essay and General Literature Index is accessible online or as a CD-ROM. Look over the list of academic indexes on page 603, but note that many specialized databases require registration through an academic institution or a subscription to access full articles as opposed to abstracts. The most common sources available for research include nonfiction books, reference books, periodicals, and the Internet. Nonfiction books contain facts, as well as extensive discussions of opinions, ideas, and theories. Use nonfiction books when you need an in-depth discussion of a topic. Reference books include general-interest encyclopedias, specialized encyclopedias, dictionaries, specialized dictionaries, atlases, and almanacs. If you want to look up a fact, read a concise discussion of the history of a topic, or find basic background information, use a reference book. In addition to reference books for the general reader, specialized reference books offer more academic and detailed discussions. Periodicals contain relatively short articles; some, such as newspapers and certain magazines, are of general interest, covering a range of topics that appeal to many different people. Special-interest periodicals focus on a single topic such as sports, news, or medicine. Unlike books and reference books, the articles in periodicals are about focused ideas related to Lesson 2 35 a larger topic. Their short format allows them to concentrate on one specific aspect of a topic, and their more frequent publication may mean the information is more up to date than that in a book. Use periodicals to familiarize yourself with current ideas and information—but not for background information, facts, or in-depth information. Study Table 22.1 on page 601 for a comparison of scholarly journals and popular magazines. Self-Check 6 In your self-check file or notebook, answer the questions based on the following online exploration. 1. Access http://www.vt.edu/ and study the homepage. Then answer these questions. a. Where are Virginia Tech Extension facilities located? b. Scroll down and click on Libraries. On top of the search box click on the Addison tab. Select “author” from the drop-down menu. Then enter “Freud, Sigmund” and click Search. You’ll open a list of sources for Sigmund Freud. Scroll down to the book Civilization and Its Discontents. Where is it located in the Newman Library? What is this book’s call number? Who translated and edited this work and who was the publisher? c. Click on the link for this entry. Explore the information available in this area. What are the subject categories for this book? Check your answers with those on page 151. 36 Advanced Composition ASSIGNMENT 7: RESEARCH THROUGH THE INTERNET Read the following assignment. Then read pages 603–606 in Chapter 22 of your textbook. Be sure to complete the self-check to gauge your progress. Electronic media have radically transformed the way people transmit, store, and access information. You’re probably familiar with the Internet and sites like Twitter and YouTube. However, this assignment will show you how to locate Internet sources you can use to write a serious essay or a research report. Internet sources include listservs, newsgroups, email, and the Web. While much of this material may sound familiar, reading it can help you understand more about the Internet and how to find your way around. READING HIGHLIGHTS Pages 603–605. The Web was originally designed to allow scientists and academics to share information. Today, the Web links millions of websites across the globe and facilitates quick communication, commerce, and information access. Websites are accessed through online web browsers, such as Firefox, Microsoft Internet Explorer, or Google Chrome. Each website is identified by a uniform resource locator (URL) with three parts. http://www.vt.edu/info/facts/index/html 12 3 Part 1, http, stands for hypertext transfer protocol. Part 2 identifies the URL server. Opening it should lead to a site’s homepage. Part 3 identifies a cyber-path to the location of a particular web page. Part 2 is the key element to examine. It identifies the server where the site’s information is stored and explains extensions—the tag that identifies the type of entity publishing the site. For research purposes, .edu and .gov are usually the most reliable, although reputable news, medical, and business organizations may have a different tag, such as .org or .com. You must be more careful with those because some may contain seriously slanted information. If you access them, read the content carefully and critically to determine their worth to your topic. Countries have extensions, such as .uk for the United Kingdom and .jp for Japan. For some purposes, the website’s country of origin may be a factor in how useful it is. Lesson 2 37 Be sure to note the list of search engines on page 604, along with handy tips on how to use keywords. Keep in mind that different search engines often provide different responses to key words written into a search window. For that reason, it may make sense to check out keyword responses on more than one search engine. Locating useful Internet sources demands care and good judgment. Because some of the material on the Web is inaccurate, biased, invented, or merely entertaining, you must make an effort to identify authoritative websites. When you find good sites, you can bookmark them, but remember to keep a separate list of the sites from which you copied or printed information for your in-text citations and works-cited page. Review Table 22.2 on page 605 for a list of web sources for academic research. The material on contacting authors is also especially valuable. Page 606. Listservs and newsgroups connect groups of people through particular servers. College listservs, for example, may inform faculty members of the Biochemistry Department about upcoming events, grade deadlines, and so on. Newsgroups may serve as discussion forums among people, such as the editorial staff of a daily newspaper or the sales representatives of a company or industry. Meanwhile, authors, other researchers, and organizations may respond directly to email queries. Self-Check 7 Questions 1–7: Indicate whether the questions are true or false. ______ 1. An article in Reader’s Digest on carpal tunnel syndrome, written by a chef who has the ailment, is an accurate source for a paper on carpal tunnel. ______ 2. Information found on a .gov website is likely to be accurate. ______ 3. Any information published on the Web undergoes a stringent review process. ______ 4. A website called http://members.aol.com/~sstevens/mywebsite.html is probably not a reliable source for factual information. (Continued) 38 Advanced Composition Self-Check 7 ______ 5. All information found on the Web has an author listed. ______ 6. An article by the National Rifle Association on the importance of gun ownership will probably present all sides of the issue. ______ 7. A book written in 1988 discussing demographics in China is likely to be the most appropriate source for a paper on the 2003 SARS disease outbreak. Imagine that you’ve been assigned an art history paper on female artists in history, and you chose Artemisia Gentileschi, born in Rome in 1593. To learn more about Artemisia, choose a search engine and type in her name. Explore at least three websites that are, in your judgment, reliable for this assignment. Look for both biographical information and examples of her work, and then answer the following questions. 8. Who was Artemisia’s first art teacher? __________________________________________________________ 9. What was the name of her first dated and signed painting? __________________________________________________________ 10. What event scarred her life when she was 19 years old? __________________________________________________________ 11. Which of her paintings is considered a reaction to that event? __________________________________________________________ 12. Other than Orazio, which baroque artist’s influence is seen in Artemisia’s work? __________________________________________________________ 13. What criteria did you use to choose reliable websites? __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ Check your answers with those on page 152. Lesson 2 39 ASSIGNMENT 8: GATHERING INFORMATION FROM SOURCES AND USING IT RESPONSIBLY Read the following assignment. Then read pages 606–615 in Chapter 22 of your textbook. Be sure to complete the selfcheck to gauge your progress. In this section, you’ll study techniques for gathering citation information from sources, taking notes, paraphrasing, recording direct quotations, and writing an annotated bibliography. You’ll also learn what constitutes plagiarism and how to use sources ethically and responsibly. Learning the art of correct paraphrasing and the procedures for using a direct quotation are crucial to writing a research report or a thoughtful essay, so make careful notes on these procedures. READING HIGHLIGHTS Pages 606–608. Extracting information from sources must be systematic. Figure 22.4 on page 607 offers you a worksheet that simplifies the task of keeping track of your sources for further research or proper citation. Another approach to organizing extracted information is the annotated bibliography, which is described and illustrated in detail. Even if your assignment calls for a works-cited page, you might find the annotated bibliography a useful tool as you begin your research, since it includes a description of each article. Pages 608–610. This section offers three different systems for taking notes. Some people prefer 4 6 or 5 8 note cards. Others create computer files organized for taking notes, writing out quotations, and making comments. A third possibility is printing or photocopying material and then underlining and writing margin notes directly on the copies. Keep in mind that the advantage of note cards is that you can arrange them according to the points you wish to make and they can be easily rearranged if you find something new and worthwhile toward the end of your search for information. But whichever method you choose, be sure to mark each page with its source, both for citation purposes and in case you have to revisit the material for additional information. 40 Advanced Composition When you take information from sources, you’ll note it in one of the following ways, each of which must include correct documentation of the source: n Direct quote n Summary n Paraphrase n Combination of quote with summary or paraphrase Pages 610–613. In business and professional research projects, it’s often the job of the researcher to read through a source, or a number of sources, and summarize the findings for a CEO or other individual. That person will be depending on the researcher to accurately convey the essence of the information—but not waste time by presenting more than what’s necessary. The same principle applies to the research papers you’ll write. Although a summary conveys the same information as the source you’re working with, it shortens or condenses the wording, sometimes drastically. It restates, in just a few sentences, the ideas that are contained in a paragraph, a few paragraphs, or even several pages. For instance, you might need to summarize background information so your reader has an understanding of the context of an issue you’re reporting on or give some history in order to clarify a problem you’ve uncovered. The following are the basic steps to take as you read through several pages of a source you want to summarize: n Underline the main ideas or key facts related to your purpose. n Cross out details and facts that aren’t important to your purpose. n Scan through what you’ve underlined from beginning to end and then set the source aside. n Write down the main ideas in your own words without looking at the source. n Scan the underlined material again to verify the facts you’ve included in your summary. Lesson 2 41 n Condense the main ideas into one sentence or a few sentences, depending on how much of the information you need for your research project. Carefully study the five guidelines offered in your textbook and bookmark the page for future reference. Also remember that even though your summary notes are written in your words, you must cite the source if you use all or part of a summary from your notes when writing your paper. In the next lesson, you’ll learn different ways to integrate each of the note-taking methods into your actual paper. For now, include careful, detailed source information for any note that you make when researching. As with summaries, paraphrasing restates an author’s ideas in your own words. Whereas a summary greatly condenses the facts and ideas, a paraphrase keeps the same basic order of information. Paraphrases are useful for many reasons. As a student, if you can read a passage and put it into your own words, then you can be sure you understand that passage. Being able to write a good paraphrase also shows that you grasp the material well enough to translate the ideas into your own words. As a writer, paraphrasing helps you avoid using too many direct quotes and encourages you to phrase the information in your own individual writing style. Finally, since most sources use language that’s not distinctive enough to quote directly, paraphrases simply convey the information you need to cover. Incorrect paraphrasing, when your own phrasing and sentence structure are too close to the author’s, is considered plagiarism. To avoid plagiarizing, set the source aside and work completely from what you remember of the passage, writing as if you were explaining the main idea to someone. Plagiarism often occurs when you haven’t taken enough time to understand the material. If you find yourself doing any of the following, you’re in danger of plagiarizing while trying to paraphrase: n Going back and forth between a source and your writing n Using a thesaurus to insert a different word here or there within a sentence 42 Advanced Composition n Changing the form of the words, such as a verb to a noun (“clarify” to “clarification”) n Putting the same words in different order For further practice on writing paraphrases, visit the Purdue University Online Writing Lab (OWL) at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/619/02/. A direct quote is simply a unique phrase or sentence that you copy directly from the source, word for word. You indicate a direct quote by using quotation marks around the phrase, sentence, or sentences that you’ve taken from the source, along with the source citation. Use this punctuation not only in your paper, but also as you take notes, so you don’t inadvertently plagiarize. If you didn’t use quotation marks, you could mistake a quote for a summary you wrote yourself. Even with the citation information, you would have committed plagiarism, because you didn’t indicate that you were using the author’s exact wording. A quote must exactly reproduce the author’s words, including spelling and punctuation, even if they’re outdated or incorrect. As you record a quotation in your notes, don’t delete any words or change any word forms, even if you don’t think you’ll use that part of the quote or know you’ll have to change a present tense verb to a past tense. Instead, record it exactly, so you have the complete, accurate quotation before you when you’re ready to include it in your paper. Only then do you make decisions about using an ellipse or brackets. You may find there are times when you don’t want to quote an entire passage, but part of its language is unique or interesting enough to quote directly. In such cases, you can use a combination of a paraphrase or summary with a direct quote. Another essential part of note taking is that of annotating your notes and sources. Annotating means that you jot down your thoughts, making personal comments as you interact with the source and think about how you’re going to use the information in your paper. Personal comments are an important step toward being able to synthesize sources and draw conclusions of your own about your topic. In many ways, a personal comment is a type of freewriting. When a bit of information captures your attention, you need to write down the connection to your narrowed topic and your thoughts while they’re fresh. Finally, such Lesson 2 43 annotation helps you put your ideas together as you go, thereby providing a great deal of the writing needed for your paper. Just be sure you keep careful track of which ideas and information come from sources and which are your own personal comments. Pages 613–615. Plagiarism is the intentional or unintentional use of other people’s ideas, words, or concepts without proper attribution. Either type of plagiarism carries heavy sanctions, which may include failure of the course, expulsion from the institution, or, in some cases, legal action. It’s simply unacceptable to copy someone else’s work and try to pass it off as your own. The box at the bottom of page 614 spells out behavior you should avoid. Notice that simply omitting quotation marks from an attributed direct quote is a form of plagiarism. Cyberplagiarism is common, but still wrong. You may have found the exact same wording on several websites. Which one should you cite? In these cases, you might decide to find your information through a more reliable source. If you do use a website as a source, make sure you include the URL, the specific source, and the date you accessed it. As you begin your own writing, review Chapter 21, which covers narrowing your topic, writing a working thesis, and creating research questions. Then read the section on how to find sources for your topic. As you work, make sure each source is both reliable and relevant to your topic. Note citation information while you search. Choose a note-taking method that works for you or combine two; for instance, you might begin by making copies and printouts and then transcribe the material you need onto note cards or into a computer file for easier management. Copy direct quotes word for word, and ensure that paraphrases and summaries are cited according to their sources. 44 Advanced Composition Self-Check 8 Questions 1–4: Read the sample source in which the underlined passages indicate quotations to be used in the exercises. The sentences have been numbered to identify them. The material appears on page 12 of the source. Then, complete each of the sentences, inserting the appropriate quote from the sample source. Be sure to use the proper form and punctuation for in-text citations. (1) I love man as my fellow; but his scepter, real or usurped, extends not to me, unless the reason of an individual demands my homage; and even then the submission is to reason, and not to man. (2) In fact, the conduct of an accountable being must be regulated by the operations of its own reason; or on what foundation rests the throne of God? (3) It appears to me necessary to dwell on these obvious truths, because females have been insulated, as it were; and, while they have been stripped of the virtues that should clothe humanity, they have been decked out with artificial graces that enable them to exercise a short-lived tyranny. (4) Love, in their bosoms, taking place of every nobler passion, their sole ambition to be fair, to raise emotion instead of inspiring respect; and this ignoble desire, like the servility in absolute monarchies, destroys all strength of character. (5) Liberty is the mother of virtue, and if women be, by their very constitution, slaves, and not allowed to breathe the sharp invigorating air of freedom, they must ever languish exotics, and be reckoned beautiful flaws in nature. —Mary Wollstonecraft (1759–1797), excerpt from A Vindication of the Rights of Women (Second Revised Edition, 1792) 1. (Sentence 1) Wollstonecraft asserts that while she loves her fellow man _______________________________________ has no sway over her. 2. (Sentence 3) The author argues that people’s capacity to guide their lives through reason is among ___________________. 3. (Sentence 3) It’s in that context that she deplores the narrow restrictions of women’s prescribed social roles, proclaiming that women are ___________________________ designed to attract, manipulate, and _____________________________ over the men in her life. 4. (Sentence 5): Declaring that ______________________, Wollstonecraft argues that if women are ________________, then they’re precluded from ever inhaling the __________________. (Continued) Lesson 2 45 Reminder: Keep reading the book you chose in preparation for Lesson 6. If you haven’t yet made a choice and begun reading, do so before continuing on to Lesson 3. Self-Check 8 Read the following passage carefully. Then write three research questions to begin your search for material for an essay based on some aspect of the events described in the paragraph. In Britain, the July election of 1945 drove the Conservative party from power. It seems the Brits had had their fill of “blood, toil, tears, and sweat.” Churchill resigned as Prime Minister and became leader of the opposition. In the spring of 1946, Sir Winston traveled to Fulton, Missouri, to deliver a speech in the auditorium at Westminster College. In his address, he warned that an “iron curtain” had fallen across Europe. He argued that the English-speaking peoples had a common bond that would unite them in common defense against the looming threat of the Soviet Union under Stalin. Indeed, his speech provided a narrative that would shape the views of an entire generation. That was no mean feat. The state of the world was by no means clear in the spring of 1946. Europe’s economy was mainly rubble and ashes. Even as George Catlett Marshall prepared a plan to restore Europe’s economy, Stalin’s Soviet Union was showing its colors and defining its intent. After so much blood and horror, another kind of darkness rose across Eastern Europe. Just as, in March of 1942, it was not at all clear how the war would turn out, in the spring of 1946, it was not at all clear what direction the world would take. 5. __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ Check your answers with those on page 152. 46 Advanced Composition ASSIGNMENT 9: CHOOSING AND NARROWING IDEAS: A REVIEW Read the following assignment. Then read pages 102–115 in Chapter 5 of your textbook. Be sure to complete the self-check to gauge your progress. INTRODUCTION As you may know, it helps immensely to choose a topic that interests you. Like a journey, the process of researching and writing takes time, so you should have a compatible companion in your topic. Even if your instructor assigns a topic, your thesis—your focus on the topic—will be unique to you. Often your research sends you in a direction different from what you first intended, or you become so caught up in gathering information that you forget your narrowed topic, your research questions, and/or your working thesis. To ensure productive use of your time, stop periodically during your hunt for information. Reconsider your thesis to determine the need for further research and to refocus your efforts. Returning to the starting point from time to time is necessary; therefore, we’ll now review the basics of choosing and narrowing ideas. Remember that choosing and narrowing a topic is a process. You begin with a broad idea and then break it down into subtopics, related categories, and supporting details. You’ll further refine your focus as you research and find additional information or, in some case, a lack of specifics that forces you to broaden or change your approach again. READING HIGHLIGHTS Pages 102–106. Sometimes knowing where to start when narrowing an assigned topic for an essay can be difficult. Freewriting or some other prewriting technique can help if you don’t have an idea or can’t think of a personal connection immediately. You might start with a list of things you want to know more about—applying different viewpoints and categories. 47 Narrowing a topic means choosing one aspect of it that you’ll be able to cover sufficiently in the number of pages you have to work with. This makes sense when you consider that there are probably numerous and lengthy books written on your basic topic, and if you have only five pages in which to present your idea, it will be impossible to offer any kind of insight in so short a space. Exploring your topic for an angle or insight is part of the learning experience. Although the text discusses techniques for finding ideas, use the suggestions to help you reconsider research questions and develop assertions to support your thesis. Pages 106–109. Aside from selecting a point of view on your topic, you’ll need to determine the purpose of your paper and consider your audience. “To fulfill an assignment” is never the purpose of an essay. In this course, you’ll write to an audience of fellow Penn Foster College students. Your purpose establishes your approach to your topic, while your audience determines its language and tone. The concept of a point of view includes both the grammatical perspective and the slant or position you take in your writing. Your text emphasizes selecting a voice depending on how you choose to approach your topic. The first-person point of view is suitable for a narrative, the second person is often used in process analysis, and the third person is appropriate for descriptions and academic papers, although there are many variations on the three basic approaches. The key is to consistently maintain a single voice throughout your paper. Pages 110–115. Review the varied techniques writers use to discover ideas, which you can apply at any stage of the research and writing process. As you read, think of ways you might want to use freewriting, mapping, brainstorming, questioning, and writing assertions. 48 Advanced Composition Self-Check 9 In your self-check file or notebook, complete the following exercises. 1. Exercise 5.4 on page 109 2. Exercise 5.7 on page 113. Respond to items 1, 2, and 5 only. Work on your own. 3. In each of the following sets, which represents a researchable topic that isn’t too broad and isn’t too narrow? a. The marketing strategies the Coca-Cola Company applies The Coca-Cola Company’s future marketing plan Past marketing strategies the Coca-Cola Company has used b. Impact of deregulation on the airline industry Percentage of commercial airline crashes traced to negligent maintenance the ten years immediately before and after deregulation Impact of deregulation on commercial airline safety c. Children sent to day care or preschool start kindergarten with more developed skills. Children sent to day care or preschool start kindergarten with more highly developed language skills. Children sent to day care or preschool start kindergarten with larger vocabularies. d. The 14 different disease-causing genes discovered in 1994 Importance of genetic research in our lives Way(s) the discovery of a genetic basis for obesity affects treatment of obese persons, both medically and socially e. Ways for adult children of alcoholics to interact most positively with their alcoholic parents Ways adult children of alcoholics interact with their alcoholic parents Emotional reactions of adult children of alcoholics to their alcoholic parents 4. Which of the following are appropriate thesis statements for a college research paper—that is, topics that can be appropriately researched? a. The economies that result from a trash-burning plant outweigh its environmental impact. b. Sexual preference is primarily physically based, not socioculturally based. c. McDonald’s makes a better burger than Burger King. d. Prozac is one of the best ways to treat clinical depression. e. Evidence shows that as the number of hours children aged 8–14 watch television increases, so does their violent behavior. Check your answers with those on page 153. Lesson 3 49 Writing a Paper Using Sources INTRODUCTION In this section, you’ll learn how to actually write your research paper. After your topic is selected and narrowed, the thesis statement is prepared, and all notes and sources are collected and organized, it’s time to write the first draft. If the first steps are completed properly, the writing should be fairly straightforward. You arrange your notes according to the pattern of development you’ve chosen and begin writing. As you present your ideas, you may generate more questions requiring some additional research or find a gap in your logic, but you can easily fix these problems at this stage. Once you’re satisfied with your draft, you can edit and proofread to correct any technical errors. OBJECTIVES When you complete this lesson, you’ll be able to n Explain how to select a thesis topic n Develop an effective thesis statement n Provide effective support for your thesis statement n Organize the first draft of a research paper n Integrate sources into an essay or research paper n Use formatting, editing, and proofreading techniques to revise your work n Describe the MLA style for in-text citations and a workscited page Lesson 3 Lesson 3 50 Advanced Composition ASSIGNMENT 10: ORGANIZING AND WRITING YOUR FIRST DRAFT Read the following assignment. Then read pages 621–630 in Chapter 23 of your textbook. Be sure to complete the selfcheck to gauge your progress. You know how to select a topic and complete your research. Now you’re ready to see how everything comes together into a first draft. The better job you do of organizing your notes and sources, the easier it is to put them together into an essay or research paper. In this assignment, you’ll review effective techniques for sorting out your research and developing your ideas as you work on your first draft. READING HIGHLIGHTS Pages 622–623. Writing a research paper can be stimulating and enjoyable if you think of your work as a voyage of discovery. Your enthusiasm (or lack of it) will be reflected in your pursuit of information, your critical thinking on the subject, and your expression of your ideas when you’re writing. Review Figure 23.1 on page 623, a chart listing the steps of the writing process covered in this chapter. Pages 623–628. As mentioned, researching your narrowed topic often unearths additional relevant sources. What’s more, you may discover information that affects how you planned to develop your narrowed topic. If you’re making personal comments or annotations while researching, you’re better able to determine if you’re getting sidetracked or need to revise your thesis. Modify your working thesis as you go, to save time and avoid disappointment. Throw away ideas for which you aren’t finding support, or adjust your direction based on a surprising discovery. For example, say your working thesis is that a girl raised with older brothers is less likely to adopt a socially acceptable female gender role, but you then discover credible information from more than one source that indicates the impact of brothers on a girl doesn’t affect her in terms of societal roles but only in her general approach to life. Your revised thesis Lesson 3 51 might say that a girl raised with older brothers is more likely to adopt a tomboy attitude while playing a socially acceptable female gender role. Making such decisions and changes as you go also helps you group similar ideas and details from different sources, thereby accomplishing the first steps in sorting and synthesizing your information. Use the exploratory questions on page 623 to guide you in revising your working thesis both while you’re researching and as you prepare to draft your paper. You can begin arranging your ideas by choosing categories from among your sources, as shown on pages 624–625. A graphic organizer, such as the one in Figure 23.2 on page 626, is also a useful tool for grouping your sources. A list of pros and cons is a third way to organize ideas, which is especially useful for arguments or a compare-and-contrast approach. Note: It’s sometimes useful to use more than one approach to the process of synthesis. Pages 629–630. Your textbook has made drafting your research paper a step-by-step process that’s easy to follow. Many of the 13 steps, like following an introduction-bodyconclusion format, keeping your audience in mind, or incorporating in-text citations, should seem both familiar and reasonable by this time. You may want to bookmark this page for reference when you’re actually writing your assignments. As you draft your research paper, keep the following points in mind: n You’re still in the process of discovery and synthesis, so if you find yourself deviating from your plan to pursue a new thought, follow your instincts to see where they lead. Such sidetracks at this stage often produce the most powerful and convincing writing. n Begin a new paragraph each time you make a new point or provide further examples. Don’t worry if the paragraph seems too short. n Focus on your own thoughts and analysis, instead of the sources. The initial draft should reflect your unique plan of development for the thesis, not what others say. Once you know what you think, you can choose the information that supports your ideas. If you string together quotation after quotation, readers won’t hear your voice—just a series of facts and opinions. 52 Advanced Composition n As you interact with and integrate source information, your mind will trigger additional connections to your thesis and to other points you’ve made or will make. Jot down notes in the margin of your draft as you go, so you don’t lose the ideas. n If you can’t explain information from a source in relation to your thesis, then set it aside rather than force it into your draft. You may think of an explanation later or, more likely, realize that the information wasn’t appropriate. n Once your draft is complete, revisit your working thesis and modify it to fit what you actually wrote, particularly in relation to the conclusions you’ve drawn at the end. n Set the draft aside for at least 24 hours, allowing yourself a complete break from the paper and research. Drafting a research paper involves cycling back through various steps in the process. For example, when you notice that a key point you want to make doesn’t have enough supporting material (one of those really short paragraphs), you’ll have to do further research to locate that information. Of course, that research may lead you to develop other points or to reorganize your ideas. Self-Check 10 In your self-check file or notebook, complete the following exercises. 1. From the following, choose the best working thesis for a proposed research paper on the topic of anorexia nervosa. Briefly explain what’s strong or weak about each one. Thesis A: There are many causes of anorexia nervosa. Thesis B: Anorexia nervosa has both emotional and social causes that work hand in hand. Thesis C: Anorexia nervosa occurs most often in young women aged 13–22. (Continued) Lesson 3 53 Self-Check 10 2. From the following, choose the best working thesis for a proposed research paper on the current state of the former Soviet Union. Briefly explain what’s strong or weak about each one. Thesis A: Business practices in former Soviet Union countries Thesis B: Business practices in the countries of the former Soviet Union have changed since the breakup. Thesis C: Since the breakup of the Soviet Union, business practices in former member countries have changed most in the fields of marketing and customer service, reflecting the changes in government and political philosophy. 3. Choose the best working thesis for a proposed research paper on the importance of Hamlet’s father’s ghost in the play by Shakespeare. Briefly explain what’s strong or weak about each one. Thesis A: Shakespeare intended the audience to question the existence of Hamlet’s father’s ghost. Thesis B: The appearance of Hamlet’s father’s ghost raises an important psychological as well as dramatic dilemma in the play. Thesis C: Critics through the ages have debated the significance of Hamlet’s father’s ghost. 4. Read the following passage. The Chihuahua is a challenging dog to have as a pet. The Chihuahua is not only devoted, sweet-tempered, and exceedingly cute, but also stubborn, feisty, and prone to destructive behaviors like digging and chewing. Because of the Chihuahua’s diminutive size (two to seven pounds), many owners don’t understand at first how much trouble this type of dog can be. Too many Chihuahuas start out as darling puppies who are lavished with attention and end up as untrained adults, unceremoniously dropped off at the dog pound. a. Write a paraphrase of the passage. b. Write a one-sentence summary of it. c. Write a personal comment about the paragraph. (Continued) 54 Advanced Composition ASSIGNMENT 11: INTEGRATING INFORMATION FROM SOURCES Read the following assignment. Then read pages 630–636 in your textbook. Be sure to complete the self-check to gauge your progress. Writing a research paper is an opportunity to learn about a subject you’re interested in. By reading what others have discovered about your topic (researching), you find out not only facts, but also opinions on how what the ideas mean and what can be deduced from them. Because part of your supporting evidence depends on what others have observed, said, and concluded, you need to know how to integrate the ideas you’ve decided to use into a cohesive, readable paper. You also have to give credit to the sources in a way that’s methodical and understandable. Self-Check 10 5. Read this passage taken from the study guide to Readings in World Civilizations, by Elizabeth Signorotti Miklus, page 53. As Britain’s empire spread, so too did its sports. Prior to the Civil War, cricket was the most popular team sport in the United States, but cricket had a competitor, another stick and ball game, known variously as “base,” “goal ball,” or “base ball.” In 1845 Alexander Cartwright suggested that the group of men with whom he played baseball—on a vacant lot in New York City—organize a club, charging dues, creating rules of conduct and play, and levying fines for those who violated the rules. After the end of the Civil War, cricket no longer held its popular place, but baseball did. Conditions, then, were highly favorable for the emergence of a team sport, an American team sport, to replace the British sport of cricket. a. Write a paraphrase of the passage. b. Write a one-sentence summary of it. c. Write a personal comment about the paragraph. Check your answers with those on page 156. Lesson 3 55 READING HIGHLIGHTS Pages 630–633. As you know, there are three ways of extracting information from sources—paraphrasing, summarizing, and direct quotation. All three methods must be documented through appropriate citations. A direct quotation can make your research paper stronger, but consider two cautions: First, use direct quotes sparingly— do so only when the author’s phrasing is vital to the point you’re making or is so distinctive that it can’t be effectively paraphrased. It’s pointless to quote common knowledge or an ordinary statement. Second, avoid using quotations to do your job of analyzing and explaining your ideas. Too many quotations suggest that you haven’t formed enough of your own reasons—at least not enough to use your own words with ease. A good rule of thumb is that your analysis showing how that quote relates to your thesis and other source material must be at least twice as long as each quote you use. Page 631. Study the information in the box on page 631 to review the kinds of material requiring documentation. Pages 633–636. Several different approaches may be used for in-text citations. By reading the textbook’s examples, you’ll see how to introduce sources into your paper and apply MLA style. As a rule, when you first mention a source, it’s best to provide some background information to the reader. For example, “Frost, whose research into victim-blaming is well known, is considered an authority on this issue . . .” Introductions are important for direct quotes, summaries, and paraphrases to indicate not only that the information isn’t your own, but also that your source is an authority on the subject. You’re attributing that information to the owner of it. Paraphrases, summaries, or direct quotations must also be integrated into the flow of your paper. A lead-in or transitional phrase that puts each borrowed idea into the context of your thesis will help your reader make the connection between the two. Study the set of verbs on page 632, which can help you introduce source material. Be sure to use the right verb to fit the context. Also note the examples of properly integrated or not integrated quotations on page 632. 56 Advanced Composition Remember, however, that a research paper isn’t a patchwork of other people’s ideas, where you use introductions or transitional phrases to pin it all together. Instead, it’s a uniform whole in which the parts are woven together to create a new piece of cloth (your report). The strong thread that holds everything together is your own thinking. The section on using quotations appropriately is organized around answers to four questions: 1. When should I use quotations? 2. How should I format quotations? 3. How do I punctuate quotations? 4. How can I change quotations? You’ll need to refer to pages 633–636 when you write your papers. A reminder that bears repeating: Always make sure your own words set up and guide the reader into understanding the connection between the quote, summary, or paraphrase and the logical flow of your argument or discussion. If you drop a direct quote into a research paper without placing it in the context of your own words, it may lose its impact or, worse, be misunderstood. When you explain how the quote relates to the topic, you show how that opinion or line of thinking supports or develops your purpose. That way, you make sure readers use the information to support your conclusions, not draw their own, which may be far different than what you intended. Lesson 3 57 Self-Check 11 In your self-check file or notebook, complete the following exercises. 1. Which of the following sentences correctly attributes a quote? a. Branscomb argues, “It’s a good idea to lurk (i.e., read all the messages without contributing anything) for a few weeks, to ensure that you don’t break any of the rules of netiquette” when joining a listserv (7). b. Branscomb argues that “it’s a good idea to lurk (i.e., read all the messages without contributing anything) for a few weeks, to ensure that you don’t break any of the rules of netiquette” when joining a listserv. (7) c. Branscomb argues that it’s a good idea to lurk (i.e., read all the messages without contributing anything) for a few weeks, to ensure that you don’t break any of the rules of netiquette when joining a listserv (7). d. Branscomb argues that it’s a good idea to lurk (i.e., read all the messages without contributing anything) for a few weeks, to ensure that you don’t break any of the rules of netiquette when joining a listserv. 2. Which of the following sentences is properly punctuated as a quote integrated into text? a. The modern world requires both the ability to concentrate on one thing and the ability to attend to more than one thing at a time, Ideally, each individual would cultivate a repertoire of styles of attention, appropriate to different situations, and would learn how to embed activities and types of attention one within another (Bateson 97). b. The modern world requires both the ability to concentrate on one thing and the ability to attend to more than one thing at a time: “Ideally, each individual would cultivate a repertoire of styles of attention, appropriate to different situations, and would learn how to embed activities and types of attention one within another.” (Bateson) c. The modern world requires both the ability to concentrate on one thing and the ability to attend to more than one thing at a time: “Ideally, each individual would cultivate a repertoire of styles of attention, appropriate to different situations, and would learn how to embed activities and types of attention one within another” (Bateson 97). d. The modern world requires both the ability to concentrate on one thing and the ability to attend to more than one thing at a time: “Ideally, each individual would cultivate a repertoire of styles of attention, appropriate to different situations, and would learn how to embed activities and types of attention one within another.” (97) (Continued) 58 Advanced Composition Self-Check 11 Read the following text from a source. Then evaluate the paraphrases according to the material you’ve studied. A key factor in explaining the sad state of American education can be found in overbureaucratization, which is seen in the compulsion to consolidate our public schools into massive factories and to increase to mammoth size our universities even in underpopulated states. The problem with bureaucracies is that they have to work hard and long to keep from substituting self-serving survival and growth for their original primary objective. Few succeed. Bureaucracies have no soul, no memory, and no conscience. If there is a single stumbling block on the road to the future, it is the bureaucracy as we know it. —Edward T. Hall, Beyond Culture, Anchor Publishing, 1977, p. 219 3. Which example most effectively paraphrases the source? a. According to Edward T. Hall, American education is overly bureaucratic. This is manifest in the increasing size of educational institutions, even in small states. Bureaucracies are bad because they tend to work to promote their own survival and growth rather than that of the institution, as was their initial objective. Most bureaucracies fail because they have a conscience or a soul. I believe that bureaucracies are the biggest stumbling block on the road to the educational future (219). b. Bureaucratization has proved to be a major stumbling block on the road to our educational future. American institutions have become factories that are more conducive to the growth of bureaucratic procedures than to the growth of the students who attend them. Bureaucracies have to work long and hard to keep from promoting their own survival rather than the educational goals that were their primary objective (219). c. Bureaucratization has proved to be a major stumbling block on the road to our educational future. American institutions have become factories that are more conducive to the growth of bureaucratic procedures than to the growth of the students who attend them. This means that, as Edward T. Hall says in his book, Beyond Culture, today’s educational institutions “have no soul, no memory, and no conscience.” d. In his book, Beyond Culture, Edward T. Hall discusses the problems posed by the increasing bureaucratization of American educational institutions. Hall maintains that overbureaucratization is one of the key factors governing the state of education in America today. He points to the tendency of bureaucracies to promote their own need both to remain stable and expand to the exclusion of all else. That tendency, he believes, is responsible for the fact that many public schools more closely resemble factories than educational institutions. In Hall’s words, “Bureaucracies have no soul, no memory, and no conscience” (219). (Continued) Lesson 3 59 Self-Check 11 Choose the best answer for the following questions. 4. True or False? Citing sources within the context of your presentation requires the use of parenthetical citations. 5. True or False? Using an introduction before a quote helps establish the credibility of your source. 6. Which of the following represents the correct in-text citation for using the following direct quote in a primary source by Henry David Thoreau? “The progress from an absolute to a limited monarchy, from a limited monarchy to a democracy, is a progress toward a true respect for the individual.” a. Nothing else is needed. It’s correct as it stands since the quote is in quotation marks. b. You must indicate all source information in a parenthetical citation. c. You need to introduce the quote as having been written by Thoreau or use his name in parentheses after the quotation. d. You should list the information about Thoreau only on the works-cited page. 7. Which of the following is the correct MLA in-text citation of a Viktor Yushchenko quote found within an article written by Olena Horodetska without page numbers? a. According to Viktor Yushchenko, as he faced near-certain victory to become Ukraine’s new president, “For 14 years we have been independent. Now we have become free.” b. According to Viktor Yushchenko, as he faced near-certain victory to become Ukraine’s new president, “For 14 years we have been independent. Now we have become free” (qtd in Horodetska). c. According to Viktor Yushchenko, as he faced near-certain victory to become Ukraine’s new president, “For 14 years we have been independent. Now we have become free.” (Qtd by O. Horodetska). d. According to Viktor Yushchenko, as he faced near-certain victory to become Ukraine’s new president, “For 14 years we have been independent. Now we have become free” (qtd by Horodetska). Check your answers with those on page 157. 60 Advanced Composition ASSIGNMENT 12: REVISING YOUR FIRST DRAFT Read the following assignment. Then read pages 636–640 in your textbook. Be sure to complete the self-check to gauge your progress. The first draft of a paper is something like a first coat of paint. Up to this point, how you wrote your questions, personal comments, and ideas wasn’t very important, as long as you understood them. But once you begin to revise your rough draft, writing style becomes very important. When applied to written reports, style means the way you use words, sentences, ideas, and structure in your writing. It covers different techniques you need to consider when revising your presentation before giving it to your audience. Characteristics of style include clarity, conciseness, coherence, usage, voice, tone, and unbiased language. For further assistance with these concepts, you may want to purchase the book The Elements of Style by William Strunk Jr. and E.B. White. You can also go to Penn Foster’s Library Resources for more links to writing resources. You can visit the academic support and online resources listed on pages 7 and 8 of this study guide as well. As your text suggests, give the first draft of your paper some “breathing time” before you return to it for assessment and revision. Let the paint dry; then go back and do it over. Check each detail to be sure you’ve done the best job you can. Sometimes that will mean reorganizing sentences or paragraphs to clarify your ideas. After you’ve revised it to your satisfaction, let it rest again before the final revision and proofreading. READING HIGHLIGHTS Pages 636–639. Revision should proceed in two steps. First, assess the paper overall, marking the deficiencies, revising your thesis, and conducting any additional research. Second, rewrite sentences and paragraphs to improve your wording, select more effective examples, and make the paper easier to read. Every sentence of your final draft should support your thesis and lead directly to your conclusion. Use Figure 23.3 on pages 638–639 Lesson 3 61 as a guide to revising your paper. We guarantee a quality product if you take the time to work through each step of the flowchart. Bookmark the page for future reference. The text provides seven guidelines for formatting an academic paper (page 637). You must apply these guidelines within the context of the submission requirements on page 4 of this guide. You may not use headings in any of your research papers for this course. Instead, be sure that you use appropriate connective phrasing and transitional devices to guide your readers through the ideas you’re presenting. Pages 639–640. When you’re ready for the final editing and proofing, refer to this section of the text before you begin. It’s too easy to read what you think you wrote, rather than what’s actually on the page, so, again, let your brain rest for a day or more before you approach it for the final review. Use the guidelines in the text for editing and proofreading your paper. In Lesson 4, you’ll revisit the drafting and revising parts of the process. Self-Check 12 In your self-check file or notebook, revise the following sentences as instructed. 1. Make the sentence clearer: The sincere belief of all of those who are members of the board was that the company should move to take action on the issues about which they had talked. 2. Make the sentence more precise: The city of San Francisco has many opportunities for leisure activities. 3. Rewrite the sentence using active rather than passive voice: A decision was reached by members of the board. (Continued) 62 Advanced Composition Self-Check 12 4. Make the tone better suited to a formal presentation: The employees are pretty together and know their stuff. 5. Correct language that shows a stereotype: An employee usually feels more confident about his new job after he’s completed his training. 6. Correct the informal, nonspecific language: Lots of times in many years, different professional people who were interested in making education better have asked me what we know about how people learn so we can use it to make education better. 7. Make the sentence clearer: With the lid off the reactor core was exposed, allowing radioactive isotopes to escape. 8. Make the sentence clearer: We propose to provide the above engineering services hourly based on the following estimates. For the following sentences, replace the idioms with appropriate academic phrasing and correct any other problem in style. 9. Janice put her finger on the source of the problem. 10. Tom was of two minds whether to take on another part-time job so close to the final examinations. 11. There were doubts as to whether the company’s dealings were above board. 12. As usual, the shortage of money proved to be the main stumbling block. Check your answers with those on page 158. Lesson 3 63 ASSIGNMENT 13: DOCUMENTING YOUR SOURCES: MLA STYLE Read the following assignment. Then read pages 640–662 in your textbook. Be sure to complete the self-check to gauge your progress. This assignment is unique. It covers the 22 pages of your text’s guide to using the Modern Language Association (MLA) style in documenting sources, giving you a good sense of the MLA approach to in-text citations and listing works cited in a research paper. This section isn’t meant to be read and remembered—you’ll use it as a reference when you complete your writing assignments. The MLA style is standard for English courses at every level, from secondary to postgraduate, and also for other humanities disciplines, such as art history, philosophy, and women’s studies. READING HIGHLIGHTS Pages 640–641. There are two acceptable forms for writing MLA in-text citations: attribution and parenthetical citation. The attribution method mentions the author’s name early in a sentence or paragraph, placing page numbers in parentheses at the end of the sentence or paragraph. A parenthetical citation includes the author’s last name and page number(s) at the end of a sentence; use this method only after a previous attribution to that author. Pages 641–644. Read the examples for specific cases of authorship and volumes. Note the instructions for Internet and nonprint sources given on pages 643–644. When you cite an Internet source, be sure to give the reader enough information in your list of works cited to locate the source. If there’s no author, use a shortened version of the title. Pages 644–662. Study these guidelines for your works-cited list. List only the sources cited in your paper. Alphabetize the list using authors’ last names and put the list on a separate page at the end of your paper. When you prepare your list, carefully follow the instructions given on these pages and look closely at the examples in the book. Every space and punctuation mark gives information, so the format has to be followed exactly. 64 Advanced Composition Pages 647–649. Book attributions can vary quite a bit, and that variety is illustrated for you on these pages. Pay special attention to the following: n Books with two or more authors n Government publications n Edited books or anthologies n Citations from an introduction, preface, foreword, or afterword n Translated books n An article or chapter within a compilation n Two or more works by the same author(s) The diagram at the top of page 647 clarifies the format, especially for visual learners. Study Figure 23.4, “Where to Find Documentation Information for a Book,” on page 646. As an exercise, look at several different books to see where you would find documentation data for each one. Pages 649–655. Each article in periodicals, Internet sources, and other sources requires specific citations. The color-coded formatting guides will be very helpful in setting up your works-cited pages. RECOMMENDED EXERCISES Check your work against the examples in the text. 1. Using the guide to listing articles and periodicals on pages 649–651, pick up several magazines and write out correct citations for several of the articles. 2. Referencing page 651, do the same exercise using scholarly journal articles. 3. Read the coded guides and examples on pages 651–655. Practice writing proper citations for two or three sources from different types of publications. Lesson 3 65 Pages 655–662. Read the “Students Write” essay by Nicholas Destino. Study each of the margin comments to reinforce your understanding of the material in this assignment. If you find yourself engrossed in the paper’s content, read it through and then go back and examine the margin boxes. Self-Check 13 Choose the properly formatted citation. 1. Book citation a. Brinkley, Alan. The Unfinished Nation. New York Knopf, 1993. b. Brinkley, Alan. The Unfinished Nation. New York. Knopf, 1993. c. Brinkley, Alan, The Unfinished Nation. New York: Knopf. 1993. d. Brinkley, Alan. The Unfinished Nation. New York: Knopf, 1993. 2. Internet citation a. Sherman, Chris. “Everything You Ever Wanted to Know About URL.” SearchEngineWatch. Ed. Danny Sullivan. 24 Aug. 2004. 4 Sept. 2004 watch.com/searchday/article.php/3398511. b. Sherman, Chris. “Everything You Ever Wanted to Know About URL.” SearchEngineWatch. Ed. Danny Sullivan. 24 Aug. 2004. 4 Sept. 2004 . c. Sherman, Chris. Everything You Ever Wanted to Know About URL. SearchEngineWatch. Ed. Danny Sullivan. 24 Aug. 2004. 4 Sept. 2004 . d. Sherman, Chris. “Everything You Ever Wanted to Know About URL.” SearchEngineWatch. Ed. Danny Sullivan. 24 Aug. 2004. 4 Sept. 2004 http://searchenginewatch.com/searchday/article.php/3398511. (Continued) Note: Access the Student Portal to watch the Using and Citing Sources lecture and take the Using Sources quiz. 66 Advanced Composition Self-Check 13 3. A works-cited page for your research presentation includes a. only those sources you referenced by in-text citation. b. only those sources you quoted directly. c. all the sources you read while researching. d. all the sources you obtained as “hits” through an Internet search. 4. For the research papers you’ll submit in this course, which type of documentation style is required for you to use? a. Chicago Manual of Style (CMS) c. American Psychological Association (APA) b. Modern Language Association (MLA) d. Columbia Style Guide (CSG) 5. Which of the following illustrates the correct MLA works-cited format for a book with two authors? a. John Jones and Mary Smith, 23 Days to a Promotion, Jackson: Last-Month Publishing House, 1969. b. Jones, John, and Mary Smith, 23 Days to a Promotion, 1969, Jackson: Last-Month Publishing House. c. Jones, John, and Smith, Mary. 23 Days to a Promotion. Jackson: Last-Month Publishing House, 1969. d. Jones, John, and Mary Smith. 23 Days to a Promotion. Jackson: Last-Month Publishing House, 1969. 6. True or False? As long as you use the documentation methods correctly for a particular entry, you can combine different methods like APA with MLA on a works-cited page. 7. True or False? By correctly citing your sources of information and documenting them on the works-cited page, you meet academic standards and avoid charges of plagiarism. 8. Which of the following is a correct MLA entry for an Internet article? a. Olena Horodetska, “Yushchenko Certain Victor in Ukraine Election,” Reuters. Dec 27, 2004. . b. Horodetska, Olena, “Yushchenko Certain Victor in Ukraine Election,” Reuters. Dec 27, 2004. Dec 30, 2004. . c. Horodetska, Olena. “Yushchenko Certain Victor in Ukraine Election.” Reuters.27 Dec. 2004. 5 June 2005. . d. Olena Horodetska. “Yushchenko Certain Victor in Ukraine Election.” Reuters.27 Dec. 2004. 5 June 2005. . Check your answers with those on page 159. Lesson 3 67 ASSIGNMENT 14: REVIEW: PATTERNS OF DEVELOPMENT AND WORKING WITH A THESIS STATEMENT Read the following assignment. Then read pages 115–118 in Chapter 5 and pages 125–133 in Chapter 6 of your textbook. Be sure to complete the self-check to gauge your progress. The patterns of development you’ll review in the lesson will help you develop your essay from an effective thesis statement. READING HIGHLIGHTS Pages 115–118. The nine patterns of development— narration, description, illustration, process, comparison and contrast, classification and division, definition, cause and effect, and argument—are outlined for you in Table 5.2 on page 116. Use the questions to stimulate your thinking as you consider what kind of paper each approach would produce. Bookmark the page for future reference. Remember, you’ll use one pattern as your primary development for your thesis, but you can, and should, incorporate other patterns as needed to provide your analysis and evidence. Pages 126–127. Carefully consider each of the six guidelines to writing a thesis statement. Study all of the examples, taking special note of important points, such as these: n Begin with a working thesis, modifying it as you go. n An assertion isn’t a fact; it takes a position on a fact or issue. To state a thesis is to offer an assertion. n Limit your essay to one major idea. n Offer a novel point of view on your topic. n Don’t begin your essay with an announcement. 68 Advanced Composition Page 128. Your thesis statement may not be the very first sentence of your paper. It often begins later in the first paragraph or appears in a later paragraph. Sometimes you build up to your thesis statement using a series of examples. For instance, if the thesis is “Organic farming is our best hope for feeding the planet and preventing permanent damage to the water supply,” the first paragraphs might begin with topic sentences like these: Paragraph 1: Scientific evidence is mounting that industrial and factory farming is yielding vegetables with steadily declining levels of vital nutrients. Paragraph 2: Topsoil loss from industrial farming is a now a global problem. Paragraph 3: Year by year, the runoff from commercial fertilizers is steadily contaminating underground aquifers across the American Midwest. The thesis statement beginning the fourth paragraph might then be, “In light of the evidence, agronomists and many farmers argue that the only viable future for human food production lies in the techniques of organic farming.” Then you’ll go on to explain the advantages of organic farming and how it will produce nutritious food without contaminating the water. An implied thesis offers the reader evidence-supported assertions and observations that lead the reader to a conclusion, even thought the writer never explicitly states the thesis. However, in academic and college writing, you must provide a direct, coherent thesis statement. For this course, your thesis should be included in the first paragraph. Pages 128–133. The types of evidence you choose must not only appropriately support your thesis, but also suit your audience and your pattern of development. This section will help you select the best type of evidence for your purpose. Reminder: Are you reading or have you read the book you chose in preparation for Lesson 6? 69 Self-Check 14 In your self-check file or notebook, complete the following exercises. 1. Turn to exercise 5.10 on page 117. Using classification and division, definition, cause and effect, and argument, generate ideas for topics 1 and 3. 2. You’ve been researching adult illiteracy in the United States and have a 14-page draft that includes two pages about how widespread the problem is, six pages analyzing the causes of the problem, and six pages evaluating possible solutions and proposing one you feel would be effective. Write a brief evaluation of the appropriateness of each of the following thesis statements in terms of what you’ve already written. a. Adult illiteracy poses the greatest threat to America today. b. Adult illiteracy in America has many causes, but it can be eliminated. c. How can the problem of adult illiteracy in America be effectively addressed? d. Subsuming a myriad of causal factors, adult illiteracy manifests itself throughout contemporary American society. 3. From the following, choose the best working thesis for a research paper about the impact of governmental policies on the way hospitals provide health care. a. U.S. government policies on health care have changed during the past 20 years resulting in hospitals that currently function as oligopolies. b. U.S. government policies on health care differ greatly from those of Asian nations due to the different social and economic structures underlying the government. c. U.S. government policies on health care should be changed to reflect citizens’ current concerns. 4. Read the following thesis statements and decide whether they’re effective. Mark each one as either effective or not effective. If the statement isn’t effective, revise it to make it so. a. The American economy should provide jobs, fair wages, and police instances of discrimination in hiring. b. The point I want to emphasize is that sex education in public schools can reduce the rate of teenage pregnancies. c. A healthy exercise program must be based on a person’s level of fitness. d. I learned a lot about nature from hiking. Check your answers with those on page 159. 70 Advanced Composition NOTES Lesson 4 71 Literary Analysis: Figurative Language in Music and Song INTRODUCTION In this section, you’ll practice some of the basic writing skills you’ve learned in other courses—English Composition or another English course. Because you’re expected to know how to put together balanced sentences and cohesive paragraphs, this review won’t be teaching you how to use the tools of writing. Instead it reminds you to use the skills you have and give you some practice before asking you to put them to use in your lesson exam. OBJECTIVES When you complete this lesson, you’ll be able to n Develop unified paragraphs using supportive details n Use transitions to express coherent ideas n Repeat key ideas to reinforce your main point n Read your own and others’ work critically n Revise the content and organization of an essay or research report n Write a thoughtful analysis of a song ASSIGNMENT 15: WRITING EFFECTIVE PARAGRAPHS Read the following assignment. Then study pages 166–179 in Chapter 8 of your textbook. Be sure to complete the self-check to gauge your progress. You’ve no doubt studied paragraph writing before. However, to prepare for your writing assignments, it won’t hurt to review the process. In some ways, the same skills used for writing paragraphs also apply to research writing. Your textLesson 4 Lesson 4 72 Advanced Composition book effectively presents the steps you need to take to write a strong paragraph. Remember, a paragraph is likely to be well crafted if it n Addresses only one topic. The topic sentence should clearly relate to and support the thesis statement. n Develops the idea set for the topic sentence by providing appropriate details including definitions, analysis, and evidence from sources. n Employs transitions and repetitions to help readers follow the logical flow of ideas through the paper. READING HIGHLIGHTS Pages 166–167. To review paragraph structure, study Figure 8.1 on page 166. Keep in mind that the topic sentence of a paragraph is equivalent to a thesis in an essay. Just as each topic sentence should support the thesis of an essay, the supporting details and the concluding or transitional sentence closing a paragraph should support the topic sentence. Pages 167–170. On these pages, you’ll focus on the art of writing a topic sentence. Make sure you fully understand these principles: n A topic sentence should be focused. That is, it should tell the reader what the paragraph is about while expressing the author’s point of view and, possibly as well, make a point about the topic. Avail yourself of the material offered in your text, and especially the comparisons between focused and unfocused topic sentences. n A topic sentence may be used to preview the organization of the paragraph. Again, your text samples will help you grasp that idea. n The topic sentence of a paragraph should support the thesis of your essay. If it doesn’t, you’ve gone off on a tangent; you’ve jumped the track that should lead from your introduction to your conclusion. Lesson 4 73 n A topic sentence should be strategically placed. As you may know at this point, that means that a topic sentence is sometimes best placed early in the paragraph or even at the end of the paragraph. Pages 170–175. To write a unified, well-developed paragraph, you must have supporting details. You can use the process of crafting your supporting details to detect related topics that don’t support your topic sentence. If a detail doesn’t support your topic, it will lead your reader astray. By the same token, practice in writing supporting details will help you avoid generalizations in lieu of concrete specific details. Keep in mind that you want to focus on the who, what, when, where, how, and why of your topic. Also keep in mind that concrete examples and illustrations are more likely to keep your reader engaged—as opposed to bored. Be sure to study the five tips for writing concrete specific details on page 174 of your text. Pages 175–179. Good writing should flow. One paragraph should lead comfortably and logically to the next paragraph. A good example is a well-written and well-directed screenplay. In a well-edited movie, transitions allow the viewer to follow the plot. The next time you watch a movie, study the way one scene is crafted to lead into the next. Are you able to follow the action smoothly or does it leave you confused? Effective transitions will keep your reader engaged with your topic. Study the list of commonly used transitions on page 176 in your textbook to match types of prose connections with useful and appropriate transitions. This section includes a draft of “The Value of Volunteering,” an essay by Robin Ferguson, on pages 177–178. Study it to see how effectively Ferguson uses transitions and repetitions. 74 Advanced Composition Self-Check 15 In your self-check file or notebook, revise each of the following sentences using the specified guideline. 1. Use who, what, when, where, and how questions: Bats hunt at night because they have built-in sonar. 2. Name people, places, or objects: Waiting for the bus, my brother stood at the corner holding a furled umbrella. 3. Use active verbs: Seeing the taxi pull up outside, Miranda went to the door to greet her husband. 4. Use descriptive language that appeals to the senses: I enjoy the view from Walker Point. Read the following paragraph; then answer questions 5–8 using the sentence numbers given in the instructions. (1) The two primary schools of behavioral psychology are classical conditioning and operant conditioning. (2) There are three keys to understanding these perspectives. (3) First, both perspectives focus on behavior, not consciousness, thoughts, or subjective feelings. (4) Second, both perspectives aim at ways to change or modify a subject’s behavior. (5) Third, both perspectives attempt to predict future behaviors based on providing specific techniques for modifying present behavior. (6) A key to understanding and differentiating the two schools of behaviorism is recognizing that both classical conditioning and operant conditioning are based on a few basic concepts. (7) These concepts, such as “conditioned response,” “operant,” or “partial reinforcement,” must be carefully learned. (8) Once they are, you’ll be fairly well informed about how behaviorists view human behavior and how they conduct their research. 5. List the transitional expressions used in sentences 3, 4, and 5. 6. Describe the type of connection these terms provide in the sentences. 7. Write a summary that condenses these three sentences into a single sentence. Remove or add words as necessary. 8. Expand sentence 8 to summarize the content of the paragraph. Check your answers with those on page 163. Lesson 4 75 ASSIGNMENT 16: REVIEWING THE ART OF REVISION Read the following assignment. Then read pages 182–194 in Chapter 9 of your textbook. Be sure to complete the self-check to gauge your progress. Mark Twain once said, “The time to begin writing an article is when you have finished it to your satisfaction. By that time you begin to clearly and logically perceive what it is you really want to say.” He wasn’t kidding. Researching and writing an essay is a process of discovery that begins when you choose your topic and doesn’t end until you’ve revealed to your reader what you’ve learned. It’s only after you read your “finished” paper that you know whether you’ve succeeded. READING HIGHLIGHTS Pages 182–183. While researching and drafting your paper seem to be the most time-consuming tasks, make sure you don’t rush through the revision process. If you look at Figure 9.1 on page 182, “An Overview of the Writing Process,” you’ll see that much analysis and reworking is in order. If you let your paper “rest” for a day or two, you may discover on the first reading that your conclusion doesn’t match your thesis. You may also find that your organization or transitions need work or that you need more detail to support an area. Fixing these flaws takes time, and sometimes even additional research, so allow at least a week to thoroughly analyze and revise your paper. Pages 183–184. The techniques of revision are listed on these pages. While they may be familiar to you, you may not have tried all of them. Give particular attention to these points: n Allow your draft to rest before you read it for revision, so you’ll see it with fresh eyes. n Read your draft aloud to get the sense of its flow and coherence. If you stumble or can’t follow the logic, it needs rewriting. n Print or type your draft. Working with a “hard copy” makes it easier to appraise the writing objectively. 76 Advanced Composition Pages 185–188. Using key questions and a graphic organizer will give you a clear picture of whether your essay needs minor or major revision. Use a flowchart like the one in Figure 9.4 on page 189 to analyze your paper and list revisions you need to make. Here are some further suggestions for reviewing points of analysis: n Write a sentence or two describing your audience and make sure all the elements of your paper address that group. n State the purpose of your paper in a single sentence; a carefully crafted thesis statement should have summed up that purpose. n Make sure your title, introduction, and conclusion effectively address your thesis. n Use the flowchart to evaluate your entire essay. Pages 188–191. If you’re studying at home, you won’t have classmates with whom to get together and read assignments, but if you have email contact with fellow students, you may want to network with them that way. Otherwise, ask a family member or friend to read and review your essay using the questions and suggestions on pages 190–191 as a guide. Once again, evaluate each of your paragraphs using the flowchart on page 189. Pages 192–194. The section on using your instructor’s comments includes the rough draft of an essay about “Guerilla Street Art.” It’s marked up by highlights linked to editorial comments. Then study the six tips on page 194 to think about how to use an instructor’s comments to improve your essays. Page 195. This section begins with some helpful comments on considering your learning style. To assess your learning style, read pages 35–41 of Chapter 2. Pages 195–201. Under the Students Write section, you’ll consider the revisions Christine Lee adopted to improve her essay, “A Trend Taken Too Far: The Reality of Real TV.” She used a graphic organizer for that purpose, so you’ll want to study Figure 9.6 on pages 196–197 to see just what she revised and why. You’ll then take a guided tour through Ms. Lee’s final draft. Be sure to take some time to study the highlights to understand how her essay was improved. Please note Penn Foster’s Code of Conduct, Academic Dishonesty, and Plagiarism policies. Review your student handbook before you share your work with another student. Lesson 4 77 EDITING AND PROOFREADING FOR CONVENTIONS All areas of life operate according to certain codes or rules. Readers expect academic essays to reflect the rules, or conventions, governing such writing. When a writer fails to polish a paper so it follows these customs, readers will not only be disappointed but also will lose confidence in the writer and may not understand what the writer is trying to communicate. The conventions of writing include correct and appropriate grammar, diction, punctuation, capitalization, sentence structure, and spelling. For this course, your papers must follow the conventions of standard American English. If you have a British background, you must be sure to use American (not British) spelling and word choices. If you need to refresh your understanding of these conventions, make use of the various resources available to you. Refer back to the academic support and online resources on pages 7 and 8 of this study guide. Links to other applicable websites are available at the Library Services link on your student page. Self-Check 16 In your self-check file or notebook, complete the following exercise. In “Analyzing the Revision” on page 201, respond to items 1–4. Before you begin, review the earlier draft of the paper on pages 158–159. Check your answers with those on page 163. 78 Advanced Composition ASSIGNMENT 17: READING AND ANALYZING LITERATURE: POETRY Read the following assignment. Then read pages 684–689 and 698–704 in Chapter 24 of your textbook. Be sure to complete the self-check to gauge your progress. Sometimes students dread reading literature for a class, only to be surprised to find that a novel by Steinbeck or a poem by Jimmy Santiago Baca reaches them on a level they never imagined possible. Much of this assignment is devoted to thinking about literature and analyzing poetry, which, for some, may present a challenge, if only in overcoming a faulty perception of what poetry is. Although written poetry is less familiar to many of us than, say, song lyrics, they’re closely related. If you think of poetry as lyrics, then you might accept that sometimes you have to hear—or read—them several times before you connect all the ideas and understand what the writer is saying. Study the information on analyzing a poem, because later you’ll be called on to write an analysis. READING HIGHLIGHTS Pages 684–685. Read the “Chapter Quick Start” introduction about the poet Gwendolyn Brooks; then read “The Bean Eaters” on page 684. Read it at least twice before going on to the analysis of the poem on page 686. Pages 687. On this page, you’re offered nine guidelines for reading literature. They point out that reading literature requires a different approach from everyday reading, but it’s worth the effort. “Anticipate a gradual understanding” is the idea we talked about earlier regarding song lyrics or poetry. It often takes multiple readings, as well as some extra time and effort, to digest the meanings imbedded in a poem or a story. Pages 688–689. You’ve studied the language of literature before, probably starting in grade school. But as you grow as a reader and a student, the ideas you encounter through simile and metaphor become more mature and complex. The explanations and examples in the text review the terms and demonstrate the use of each. Literary works also use Lesson 4 79 personification, in which human characteristics are attributed to objects or animals, and symbols that stand for ideas or themes. Irony plays tricks with words to expose the opposite of what you may expect. Pages 698–699. Even if you don’t read poetry for pleasure, try to appreciate the many elements a poet puts together to deliver his or her message. Poetry gains its power from communicating feeling and intuition through creative use of language. Ordinary, literal, “left-brained” language works for logical or practical purposes, and sometimes even for narratives. Insights into values, emotions, or questions of existence are better expressed indirectly through concise images, tone, and levels of meaning. Use the 10 questions on page 699 to help you analyze the poems by Robert Frost and Elizabeth Bishop. Pages 703–704. Here, you’ll find basic information on literary analysis. Literary analysis doesn’t mean summarizing a work. Analysis must provide a critique of the work, considering its elements (such as tone, language, and the effect of rhyme, if any) and interpreting the work to reveal its context and message. Analyzing Poetry As mentioned earlier, analyzing a poem is much like understanding thoughtful song lyrics. The more you listen to a song, the more you “catch,” and after hearing it several times you realize what the entire message or story is. Many popular songs use symbols or allusions that resonate with their audience. For instance, just a place name, like Woodstock or the Twin Towers, can provide the time and mood the writer wants to invoke. Poets try to express ideas concisely, using clear ideas that evoke not only an image, but also a feeling. Note that images appeal to all of the five senses, not just sight. When you read a poem, start by reading it through twice. In fact, don’t expect to understand it until you’ve read it several times. In the first reading, you’ll just begin to see where the poet is going by the time you reach the end. On the second reading, you’ll see how the earlier ideas develop and are related to the later ones. With each subsequent reading, more of the poet’s message will become evident. 80 Advanced Composition The Poet’s Tools To convey meaning, poets use certain mechanical elements in addition to themes, emotion, and figures of speech. Rhyme, meter, and even spelling and punctuation add substance, depth, and sometimes ambiguity to a poem. When you first read the two poems given later in this section, you may not realize that each has a rhyme scheme, because if you follow the punctuation, as you should, you probably won’t hear it. Read the poems through twice, and then read each one aloud. Next, begin looking for the rhyme scheme. Remember that rhymes aren’t necessarily perfect and some lines may not have a rhyming partner. For instance, in Arnold’s poem “Dover Beach” on page 82, lines 21 and 26 end in “Faith” and “breath” respectively. He may have intended them as a half rhyme. In Dickinson’s poem on page 83, “soul” and “all” offer a half (or slant ) rhyme, but the first line, which ends with “feathers,” doesn’t rhyme with any other line. While poets sometimes use rhyme to emphasize words, in this case it may be the lack of rhyme that makes “feathers” stand out. Next, look for other mechanical points of interest. While you won’t necessarily refer to them in your literary analysis, poets use these tools to add interest, emphasis, and mood to a poem. Whenever you come across such elements, remember that the poet deliberately employed the sounds, as well as the words. Also remember that not all poems are deadly serious— if a series of words or rhymes seem playful or funny, chances are they were meant to be just that. Alliteration. Alliteration is the repetition of the initial sound in a series of words. (See line 8 of “Dover Beach.”) Assonance. In assonance, the vowel sound repeats. (In “Dover Beach,” see the rhymes of the lines with the ite sound: tonight, light, flight.) Consonance. Consonance uses repeating consonant sounds, usually at the beginning and ends of words, but sometimes in combination with sounds within a word. (See lines 4 and 12 of “Dover Beach.”) Internal rhyme. When words within a line or sentence rhyme, it’s called internal rhyme. Like end rhymes, internal rhyme may be imperfect. Lesson 4 81 Another element of poetry is its rhythm or meter. Rhythm refers to how the words sound as they’re read. Meter is the pattern used to create the rhythm. Meter is measured in feet per line; each foot represents a stressed syllable and one or two unstressed syllables. Some of these patterns are standard and have names, the most familiar being iambic pentameter, which uses one unstressed and one stressed syllable for each foot, with five feet to the line. Shakespeare often wrote in iambic pentameter, such as in this couplet: So long as men can breathe, or eyes can see, So long lives this, and this gives life to thee. Reading the lines aloud gives you a very clear idea of the meter that was written into the poem. When you read the Emily Dickinson poem, pay close attention to the meter in each line. Note how the first line’s meter—like its lack of rhyme—doesn’t match the rest of the poem. Why should you examine the mechanics of a poem? For one thing, the words the poet stresses through rhyme or meter will help you pick out what’s important. Also, by paying attention to the details, you’ll discover relationships between lines and words that you might not notice otherwise. For instance, rhyming words that appear in the first lines and are repeated at the end of the poem may have particular significance; or, like the odd lines in the Dickinson poem, a different sound or meter may signal importance. Finally, the closer you look and the more ways and the more times you read the poem, the more likely you are to grasp its full meaning. Although song lyrics add the dimension of rhythm and meter through a musical score, the songwriter considers these same mechanics. Analyzing a Poem Now that you have a good idea of what you’re looking for, study the following poems by Matthew Arnold and Emily Dickinson. Later you’ll have a chance to write your own analytical or critical ideas about the poems. Matthew Arnold. Matthew Arnold (1822–1888) was a prominent poet of the Victorian era. He traveled and lived in upper-class social circles, maintaining relationships with English and French literary figures of the time. He was closely involved with issues of education and, for much of 82 Advanced Composition his life, was the Inspector of Schools for England. He was considered unpretentious and outgoing, even though much of his poetry reflected an aura of romantic melancholy characteristic of many intellectuals of his age. As his poem “Dover Beach” suggests, he had some doubts about the future of civilization. Dover Beach The sea is calm tonight, The tide is full, the moon lies fair Upon the straits; on the French coast the light Gleams and is gone; the cliffs of England stand, Glimmering and vast, out in the tranquil bay. 5 Come to the window, sweet is the night air! Only, from the long line of spray Where the moon meets the moon-blanched land, Listen! You hear the grating roar Of pebbles which the waves draw back, and fling, 10 At their return, up the high strand, Begin, and cease, and then again begin, With tremulous cadence slow, and bring The eternal note of sadness in. Sophocles long ago 15 Heard it in the Aegean, and it brought Into his mind the turbid ebb and flow Of human misery; we Find also in the sound a thought, Hearing it by this distant northern sea. 20 The Sea of Faith Was once, too, at the full, and round earth’s shore Lay like the folds of a bright girdle furled. But now I only hear Its melancholy, long, withdrawing roar, 25 Retreating, to the breath Of the night wind, down the vast edges drear And naked shingles of the world. Ah, love, let us be true To one another! for the world, which seems 30 To lie before us like a land of dreams, So various, so beautiful, so new, Hath really neither joy, nor love, nor light, Nor certitude, nor peace, nor help for pain; And we are here as on a darkling plain 35 Swept with confused alarms of struggle and flight, Where ignorant armies clash by night. Lesson 4 83 Here’s some background on the poem: The beach to which Arnold refers in the title is, as you might guess, the famous “white cliffs of Dover,” where the speaker describes its beauty to his love. Sophocles, a Greek poet and playwright, was the author of Antigone (441 BCE) and Oedipus the King (425 BCE), tragedies based on deep flaws in the characters and, by implication, in human nature. The “Sea of Faith” (third stanza) refers to Christendom before the Protestant Reformation of the sixteenth century. Using the mechanical tools discussed earlier, highlight the lines you think are most significant. Think about the meaning of the words, and make sure you look up anything you don’t understand. Then put into words the message you believe the poet was trying to convey. Emily Dickinson. Born in 1830, Emily Dickinson was well educated as a young woman, but after that lived her entire life in the family home in Amherst, Massachusetts. She wrote hundreds of poems, but only a few of them were published during her lifetime and most weren’t discovered until after her death. Her style of punctuation and use of slant rhymes was unconventional in her day, but she put great thought into the mechanics of each poem and each idiosyncratic device had a purpose. Most of her poems didn’t have titles. Often referred to as the Belle of Amherst, Dickinson is now recognized as one of America’s most outstanding poets. “Hope” is the thing with feathers— That perches in my soul— And sings the tune without the words— And never stops—at all— And sweetest—in the Gale—is heard— And sore must be the storm— That could abash the little bird That kept so many warm— I’ve heard it in the chillest land— And on the strangest Sea— Yet, never, in Extremity, It asked a crumb—of Me. 84 Advanced Composition This poem was part of a larger piece titled “Life.” It can be considered an extended metaphor, with the bird representing hope and all the images relating to that idea. The little bird is a resident of the human soul and always offers comfort no matter how strong the storm. Incorporating Research into a Literary Analysis When you write a research paper, you look up information and opinions that will support your thesis. You should apply the same process to writing a literary analysis. Once you’ve taken a position on the meaning or importance of an element in a poem or song and developed your thesis, you can begin the research process. If you need to refresh your understanding of the research process, make use of the various resources available to you. Refer back to the academic support and online resources on pages 7 and 8 of this study guide. Links to other applicable websites are available at the Library Services link on your student page. Once you’ve thoroughly analyzed a poem (or song) and decided on a thesis, you can search for authoritative sources to back you up. Your reference librarian can help you find appropriate sources. Then you’ll integrate the information into your paper as support for your ideas, just as you would any sources for a research paper. Be sure to use proper citation. Self-Check 17 In your self-check file or notebook, complete items 1–7 in your own words. 1. What is the difference between a simile and a metaphor? Provide your own invented examples for each. Identify the central metaphor in Dickinson’s poem. 2. In “Dover Beach,” what does the metaphor “. . . naked shingles of the world” represent? 3. What is personification? Give one example from Arnold’s poem. (Continued) Note: Access the Student Portal to watch the Figurative Language: Analyzing Poetry lecture and take the Figurative Language quiz. Lesson 4 85 ASSIGNMENT 18: BEGINNING, ENDING, AND ILLUSTRATING ESSAYS Read the following assignment. Then read pages 152–157 in Chapter 7 and pages 309–312 in Chapter 13 of your textbook. Be sure to complete the self-check to gauge your progress. To make a point with your essay, you obviously must get people to read it. A strong introduction will grab your readers’ attention and let them know what to expect. As you make your points, effective illustrations can help readers follow your argument and influence their thinking toward your point of view. Your ending should tie it all up in a conclusion that completes your argument, reflects your thesis, and leaves your audience thinking. Self-Check 17 4. In what way could an empty and abandoned house be a symbol? Use your imagination and write out three possible examples. 5. Use comparison and contrast to summarize the themes of “Dover Beach” and the Dickinson poem. Write two or more paragraphs in the style of a short essay. 6. If you were writing a critical essay comparing the two poems, what might your thesis be? Draft a thesis statement for your essay and write two possible titles for it. 7. What is the meaning of the last two lines of Dickinson’s poem? Offer additional critical comments on the poem’s ending. Check your answers with those on page 164. 86 Advanced Composition READING HIGHLIGHTS Page 152. Your introduction is your readers’ first impression of your work. It should indicate the focus of your narrowed topic, set the tone, and establish expectations for the essay. In the text, study the two examples of introductions from student essays and read the analysis on page 153. A good introduction should also n Present your thesis statement n Engage the readers’ interest n Provide any necessary background information Study the tips on pages 154–156 for writing a strong introduction. It’s a good idea to begin with an anecdote, a description, a startling statistic, or a comparison to “hook” your readers. For instance, “The first time I saw Jim Handy, he was standing atop a water tower, reciting the Gettysburg Address.” “Imagine a world without automobiles.” “Today, two out of every five American children are born into poverty.” “The art and science of archeology are similar to that of crime investigation.” Keep the introduction short—one paragraph is best—and avoid announcements, slang, and other gimmicks. Pages 156–157. An effective conclusion wraps up the essay with a succinct summary and/or a logical conclusion derived from your supporting evidence. While your ending must reflect your thesis, it shouldn’t simply reiterate it. Your conclusion also may point beyond your essay. For instance, “Railroads were once the heart of American transportation and, given current trends, a new age of railroading may be in our immediate future.” Your conclusion shouldn’t soften or contradict your stand on a topic and should never apologize for your work or your ideas. Study the five mistakes to avoid on pages 156–157. 87 Page 157. A good title can make your essay stronger. In most academic papers, the best titles tend to be descriptive and straightforward. To make it more engaging or intriguing, you might frame the title as a question or use word play or alliteration, if it’s smartly done. Here are some examples: Mountain Top Removal: A Crime against Nature Is Mountain Top Removal a Crime against Nature? Poverty from Profits: The Tragedy of Mountain Top Removal Avoid generic titles that merely indicate your topic without telling your readers anything about your thesis, such as “Trash Removal,” “Free Trade,” or “Sexual Harassment.” Pages 309–312. In writing, illustrations are the examples you offer to support your general statements. Select examples that are appropriate, relevant, accurate, striking, or dramatic, so they impress upon the reader the point you’re trying to make. Illustrations should n Engage the readers’ interest n Support generalizations n Explain or clarify through examples n Support the overall purpose of your paper Make sure your organization is effective and that your examples fit into the design of your paper, contributing to its flow and readability. 88 Examination, Lesson 4 Self-Check 18 Study the following paragraph and then complete items 1–4. How did a handful of Spanish conquistadors overcome a Mexican empire comprising a population in the millions? The mighty, literate, and culturally sophisticated Aztec society of Mexico may have appeared invincible. But two factors seem paramount in their conquest. First, the Europeans had superior weaponry. Second, and perhaps of much greater interest, subtle cultural factors were involved. Ancient prophecies recorded by Aztec priests foretold the arrival of a bearded god, an incarnation of the mighty Quetzalcoatl, arriving in the Aztec year Reed I (1516)— exactly when Hernando Cortez arrived. Had Cortez been viewed as a demonic, rather than a divine apparition, superior weaponry wouldn’t have saved the Spaniards from Aztec fury. Cortez took practical advantage of his temporary “godliness” to gather indigenous allies against the hated Aztecs. Meanwhile, to hasten the success of the Spanish conquest, both Aztecs and their oppressed populations began to succumb to European diseases like typhoid, measles, and cholera. 1. Does the first sentence of this paragraph engage the reader? Explain your view in a few sentences. 2. Create a thesis statement for an essay based on the paragraph. 3. Read this concluding paragraph; then answer the question. The Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire of Mexico was aided by one of the great ironies of history, the myth of the return of the bearded god Quetzalcoatl. Yet, as we revisit this terrible drama, we are reminded of a broader fact and a wider context: Similar tragedies still occur today when Western civilization encroaches on ancient indigenous cultures. What two tips for writing a conclusion were used? 4. Which of the following titles would be best? Why did you reject the others? a. They Expected a God and Got a Grandee b. Cortez and the Prophecy that Betrayed the Aztecs c. An Empire Falls for a Fable Check your answers with those on page 165. Examination, Lesson 4 89 Objectives For this exam, the student will n Use the writing process to prewrite, plan, and organize an essay n Write an effective thesis statement n Identify, define, and analyze literary elements n Develop critical reading skills n Use responsible research methods to locate appropriate secondary sources n Use MLA citation and documentation style to reference secondary source material correctly and appropriately Topic In 2015, not many students claim to like poetry. But when was the last time you went a day without music? The fact is, music has always been more like poetry than many people realize. Music is the new poetry. If you can understand and appreciate the language and meaning of a song, then it wouldn’t be too hard for you to read and understand a poem. In this assignment, you’ll apply the techniques of reading poetry to song lyrics in order to analyze the effectiveness and appeal of figurative language. Purpose n To prepare an outline or graphic organizer that will serve as the foundation for a 1,200–1,500 word essay Prewriting Examination Lesson 4 Examination Examination EXAMINATION NUMBER 50046800 90 Examination, Lesson 4 n To begin the research process by preparing an annotated bibliography in MLA citation and documentation format that consists of at least five sources n One primary source: the song lyrics n Four secondary sources: song reviews or critiques, articles about the album, profiles of the singer and/or songwriter that focus on the specific song and lyrics (not the individual’s personal life) Audience Junior and senior-level distance-education students enrolled at Penn Foster College Process Plan and Prewrite 1. Watch the Literary Analysis lecture notes video on your My Courses page. This video reviews the essay requirements and the main elements of a literary analysis. 2. Make a list of songs you might want to write about. Remember that the song needs to employ figurative language, so you’ll most likely need to spend some time online looking up the lyrics to ensure that you choose a song with enough figurative language to write a 1,200- 1,500 word essay about. 3. Choose one song from your list to write about. 4. Develop the content for your outline or graphic organizer by first freewriting about your song. a. What’s the song about? b.How does the song convey that subject? i. Does it use straightforward, literal language? If so, you may want to return to your list and choose another. ii. Does it employ figurative language? iii.What types of figurative language can you identify? Review pages 688–689 in your textbook and the Literary Analysis lecture notes video on your My Courses page. c. What does the figurative language represent? Examination, Lesson 4 91 5. Is the song popular? Why do listeners find it appealing? If it’s not popular, why don’t audiences like it? Research 1. The lyrics to the song you chose are your primary source; they count as one source on your annotated bibliography and toward the research requirement for your essay. Be sure to carefully note if you found the lyrics online or in print. 2. Locate a minimum of four secondary sources. These sources should focus on the song’s popularity, appeal, and cultural significance. a. If you’ve chosen a contemporary song, analyze why audiences have made it so popular—or, perhaps, reviled—today. b.If you’ve chosen an older song, explore why it was significant in its own time period and/or why it’s still meaningful today. c. You don’t need to choose a song from the Billboard charts for this assignment. You may have chosen a song that’s significant to a particular group but doesn’t have widespread popularity. If so, focus on what makes the song meaningful to those listening to it. 3. Go to the library. The Penn Foster Digital Library provides resources that will help you to meet the research requirements for your essay, but keep in mind that research in a library, even a digital one, isn’t like searching online. To learn more, visit the Penn Foster Digital Library site on the Community: http://community.pennfoster.edu/community/academic‐groups/digital‐ library‐information‐literacy. 4. Search online, but be sure to carefully evaluate your sources. Review pages 583–593 in your textbook. Some examples of credible secondary sources are a. Reviews by music critics b.Profiles by journalists and other professional writers c. Articles about the time period, cultural events, and social standards 92 Examination, Lesson 4 Prepare Your Annotated Bibliography Review pages 607–610 in your textbook for specific information and a sample annotated bibliography. You should also review MLA format for citation and documentation (640–662). 1. Annotations are three to five sentence summaries of sources that follow the citation. Make note of content that’s relevant to your topic and that will support your arguments. 2. Confirm that your citations are correct by checking them against the MLA section in your text. Prepare Your Outline/Graphic Organizer You may choose to submit either a formal outline or a graphic organizer for this assignment. Your outline or graphic organizer should be sufficiently detailed to illustrate your plan for your essay. It should be as detailed as possible. Reread pages 148–150 in your textbook on outlines and graphic organizers. 1. This essay (both prewriting and essay) requires you to analyze the use of figurative language in a song, and then illustrate that song’s cultural appeal and/or significance to its listeners. Please review pages 309–313 in your textbook for the characteristics of an illustration essay and a sample graphic organizer. 2. Be sure to state your main points, secondary points, and supporting evidence. Include any references to secondary sources as well, and use MLA parenthetical citation to link them to your annotated bibliography. 3. Revise your work to ensure that your thesis statement, main points, evidence and secondary sources all work together to address the purpose of the assignment. Assignment checklist For this assignment, you must submit your n Song lyrics n Outline or graphic organizer n Annotated bibliography Examination, Lesson 4 93 Submit Your Exam Your paper should be formatted as follows: n 1-inch margins on all sides n 12-point Times New Roman font n Double spacing 1. Use the header function in your word processing program to enter your personal identification and exam information: Student Name [tab] ID Number [tab] Exam Number Street Address City, State, Zip Email Address 2. Save your exam with the file name: IDNumber_ExamNumber_LastName_FirstName 3. Save your exam in either MS Word or Rich Text Format (.rtf). If an instructor can’t open the file you submit, it will be returned ungraded. 4. When your exam has been evaluated and returned to you, you’ll be able to review the instructor’s comments by clicking on the View Project button next to the grade and downloading the Instructor Feedback File. If you have trouble viewing the file, please contact an instructor. Written examinations must be typed, double-spaced, using a standard 12-point font and left justification. Use 1-inch margins at the top and bottom and 1.25-inch margins for the left and right sides of the document. Each page must have a properly formatted header containing your name, student number, exam number, page number, mailing address, and email address (see page 4 for an example). Name each document using your student number first, then the six-digit lesson number, and finally your last name (for example, 23456789_500680 Doe). Save your work as a Microsoft Word document or as a Rich Text Format (.rtf) file. 94 Advanced Composition NOTES 95 Examination Examination Lesson 4 Title When you feel confident that you have mastered the material in Lesson 4, go to http://www.takeexamsonline.com and submit your answers online. If you don’t have access to the Internet, you can phone in or mail in your exam. Submit your answers for this examination as soon as you complete it. Do not wait until EXAMINATION NUMBER 00000000 Whichever method you use in submitting your exam Objectives For this exam, the student will n Use the writing process to draft and revise an essay n Write an effective thesis statement n Develop paragraphs using topic sentences, adequate detail, supporting evidence, and transitions. n Identify, define, and analyze literary elements n Use responsible research methods to locate appropriate secondary sources n Use MLA citation and documentation style to reference secondary source material correctly and appropriately n Quote, paraphrase, and summarize secondary source material correctly and appropriately n Use the conventions of standard, written American English to produce well-written essays Topic You’ll develop your essay from the outline or graphic organizer you wrote for your previous assignment—analyzing the use of figurative language in a song. Don’t switch your topic; use your instructor’s feedback to refine your ideas and to write your essay. Purpose To write a 1,200–1,500 word essay that analyzes the figurative language in a song to show how those elements contribute to the song’s appeal to its audience. Lesson 4 Essay Examination EXAMINATION NUMBER 50044200 96 Examination, Lesson 4 Audience Junior and senior-level distance-education students enrolled at Penn Foster College NOTE: You may not submit this essay until you have received a passing grade on your prewriting assignment. You will be expected to use the feedback you received from your instructor to create a draft and revise your essay. The Writing Process Drafting 1. You’ve received feedback on your prewriting assignment that should help you to develop your essay. Review your outline or graphic organizer to ensure that you understand the instructor’s comments and recommendations. 2. Review the following material a. Chapter 7, “Drafting an Essay” b.Chapter 8, “Writing Effective Paragraphs “ 3. As you begin to draft the ideas you included in your outline or graphic organizer, follow the guidelines for writing the a. Title (page 157) b.Introduction (pages 152–156) c. Conclusion (pages 156–157) 4. Limit the content of each paragraph to the information introduced in the topic sentence and develop that paragraph topic based on the information in your outline or graphic organizer. 5. Review Chapter 24 on incorporating research into your essay. Be sure to: a. Introduce borrowed content b.Properly punctuate quotations c. Provide in-text, or parenthetical, citations for secondary sources in MLA format d.Use MLA format for your list of works cited Examination, Lesson 4 97 Revising 1. Review Chapter 9, “Revising Content and Organization” 2. Use the flowchart on pages 186–187 to check your essay and revise the elements to which you answered “no”. 3. Use the flowchart on page 189 to check your paragraphs to ensure that they are logically developed and organized effectively. Revise the elements to which you answered “no”. 4. For more instruction on developing your essay, use the Guided Writing Assignment in Chapter 13, “Illustration: Explaining with Examples.” Consider using the Smarthinking tutoring service to review your essay. A tutor will provide feedback that you can use to revise your essay before you submit for a grade. To learn how to use the Smarthinking Writing Center, watch this video: http://community.pennfoster.edu/docs/DOC‐62283. Assignment Checklist For this assignment, you must submit your n Song lyrics n Essay n List of works cited Please save all your work in one document; don’t upload separate documents for review. Use page breaks between your song lyrics and essay. Your list of works cited should also be a separate page. Review the sample MLA style essay on pages 656–662 in your textbook. Submit Your Exam Your paper should be formatted as follows: n 1-inch margins on all sides n 12-point Times New Roman font n Double spacing 98 Examination, Lesson 4 1. Use the header function in your word processing program to enter your personal identification and exam information: Student Name [tab] ID Number [tab] Exam Number Street Address City, State, Zip Email Address 2. Save your exam with the file name: IDNumber_ExamNumber_LastName_FirstName 3. Save your exam in either MS Word or Rich Text Format (.rtf). If an instructor cannot open the file you submit, it will be returned ungraded. 4. When your exam has been evaluated and returned to you, you’ll be able to review the instructor’s comments by clicking on the View Project button next to the grade and downloading the Instructor Feedback File. If you have trouble viewing the file, please contact an instructor. Written examinations must be typed, double-spaced, using a standard 12-point font and left justification. Use 1-inch margins at the top and bottom and 1.25-inch margins for the left and right sides of the document. Each page must have a properly formatted header containing your name, student number, exam number, page number, mailing address, and email address (see page 4 for an example). Name each document using your student number first, then the six-digit lesson number, and finally your last name (for example, 23456789_500680 Doe). Save your work as a Microsoft Word document or as a Rich Text Format (.rtf) file. 99 .Using Definition with Lesson 5 Lesson 5 Classification INTRODUCTION In your everyday life, you probably find it helpful and even comforting to keep things organized. By classifying objects, chores, and even the food we eat into recognizable groups or dividing large entities into manageable segments, we make sense of and keep track of the various parts of our lives. Classifying or dividing a topic for an essay can help you as a writer organize your thoughts and ideas before you begin a draft, or it can be the pattern of development you use to inform your readers about your topic. If you include definition, you have not only the foundation for a good expository essay, but also a great basic organizational structure that will be useful to you in a variety of writing situations. OBJECTIVES When you complete this lesson, you’ll be able to n Differentiate between classification and division n Effectively use division and classification with definition n Explain the characteristics of an extended definition n Integrate definitions into essays n Use an extended definition as a pattern of development n Analyze similarities and differences in subject matter ASSIGNMENT 19: CLASSIFICATION AND DIVISION Read the following assignment. Then study pages 410–416 and 420–426 in Chapter 16 of your textbook. Be sure to complete the self-check to gauge your progress. 100 Advanced Composition In this assignment you’ll reconsider the nature of classification and division in combination with other patterns of development, such as definition. While each method of organization can be effective on its own, combining two or three will give your essay more depth and allow more sophisticated approaches to your subject matter. READING HIGHLIGHTS Page 410. It seems people are compelled to sort things— clothing, office supplies, and library books are generally grouped together in ways that help us find and use them more efficiently. Even people are sorted into groups by family, job title, or personality type. That’s classification. If we divide a large group, such as a business, into smaller categories, like departments, we call that division. Pages 411–413. Read the essay “My Secret Life on the McJob” by Jerry Newman. In his essay, Newman uses illustration to both engage his readers and differentiate the management styles of different store managers. As you enjoy reading this essay, consider the following questions: What was the most common managerial style the author encountered? What was the most common work attitude of mechanical managers? Why do you suppose relationship managers were so rare? Which of these managerial types is characterized by quickly letting employees know what is expected of them? Pages 413–415. Your text discusses the characteristics of the classification or division essay on these pages. First, remember your readers and be sure that your categories make sense to them. Use a single principle for classification or division. For example, if your topic were stars, you could classify them by brightness, color, and mass, but if you divided them, it would be by types of stars. Each element classified or sorted into parts should be fully explained. An essay that employs classification or division frames the parts and pieces with a thesis, which identifies the topic. Example: “Selecting the Right Vacation for Your Family.” Lesson 5 101 Pages 415–419. A classification or division essay is a natural for a graphic organizer. Study Figure 16.1 on page 416 for an example. Then read “A Brush with Reality: Surprises in the Tube,” on pages 417–418 and study Figure 16.2 on page 419 to see how the article is illustrated in a graphic organizer. Page 420. You can integrate a division or classification into an essay with other patterns of development.Three tips to that end are found on page 420. Pages 420–428. Use the “Guided Writing Assignment” to practice classification. Movies are already classified by type or genre; when you make plans to see a movie, you choose between comedy, horror, science fiction, romance, or a variety of other types. When you write an essay, however, you need to do more than identify and define. Keep in mind that a thesis statement is a claim that requires proof or an assertion that you must defend, so your classification essay about different 102 Advanced Composition Self-Check 19 In your self-check file or notebook, complete the following exercises. Read the following passage carefully; then answer the questions. How Are Rocks Different from Minerals? Geologists know the difference between rocks and minerals. Minerals are natural chemical compounds, and their variety is enormous. They’re sometimes classified according to their chemical properties. The Dana classification system includes the silicate, carbonate, sulfate, oxide, and element classes, among others. For instance, a very common mineral in the silicate class, quartz, is mainly composed of silicon dioxide. The element class comprises metals and intermetallic elements, such as silver and gold. In contrast, the three basic kinds of rocks are classified in terms of how they were formed. Igneous rocks are hardened magma—the molten rock found beneath Earth’s crust. Sedimentary rocks are formed from layers of sand, clay, or the remains of marine creatures. Compressed by the weight and pressure of ocean depths, sand can become sandstone, clay can become shale, and the skeletons of marine animals may be transformed into limestone. Finally, metamorphic rocks can originate from either igneous or sedimentary rocks. Over billions of years, convulsions of the Earth’s crust have pushed igneous or sedimentary rocks deep into our planet’s subsurface to be transformed (metamorphosed) by unimaginable heat and pressure. Over millions of years, granite may be transformed into some form of gneiss or schist—rocks that are often found in the Alps or the Rocky Mountains. Limestone may be transformed into marble, shale into slate, and sandstone into glittering quartzite. 1. Which of the following patterns of development does not stand out in the paragraph? a. Comparison and contrast b. Classification and division c. Argument d. Illustration 2. If the paragraphs are part of a short essay, what is a possible working thesis for the essay? 3. Outline the classifications and divisions in the essay. Check your answers with those on page 166. Lesson 5 103 types of movies has to go a step farther. Consider the different audiences each genre of movie attracts or the best ways to watch certain types of movies. After you’ve brainstormed some ideas, draft a working thesis statement and consider the best method for organizing the material you’ve included. Remember your purpose, point of view, and your audience. ASSIGNMENT 20: DEFINITION Read the following assignment. Then, read pages 442–453 in Chapter 17 of your textbook. Be sure to complete the selfcheck to gauge your progress. As you move from classification and division to definition, you can probably see the links between these two patterns of development. In your essay for this lesson, you’ll develop an extended definition of the term family or friend. You’ll explore your own definition of the word you choose, and then use classification and/or division to incorporate formal definitions to show how our understanding of such terms evolves over time and in response to our respective cultures. READING HIGHLIGHTS Pages 442–446. A definition, which explains the meaning of a term or concept, should be given directly and then may be explored through illustrations and examples. For example, “Voice over: In a film or video, dialog spoken off camera, generally in the context of a series of visual images” is a direct definition, while the essay by Jan Goodwin offers an extended definition through explanations of who “freegans” are and how they live. Pages 446–449. In an extended definition you may expect to find one or more characteristics, including n A brief explanation of the term: “Arachnid: A family of creatures within the Arthropod phylum, which includes spiders, scorpions, and horseshoe crabs.” n Specificity and focus: In the Goodwin essay, the focus is on urban foragers and their place in society. 104 Advanced Composition n A point: An extended definition makes its point by elaborating on the definition. “With their compound eyes, treacherous webs, and grasping mandibles, spiders are seen by some as prototypes of some alien menace.” n Varying or mixed patterns of development: You might compare and contrast spiders and horseshoe crabs or discuss the evolution of spiders from ancestors of the horseshoe crab. Other approaches would be to use details and distinguishing characteristics, such as compound eyes, treacherous webs, and grasping mandibles, or repudiate misconceptions—“Spiders play a vital role in curtailing the populations of insect pests.” Pages 450–452. Figure 17.1 on page 450 offers a graphic organizer for an extended-definition essay. It’s followed by the essay “Dude, Do You Know What You Just Said?” by Mike Crissey on pages 451–452. As you read, imagine creating a graphic organizer for the essay. Then study Figure 17.2 to see if your thoughts and ideas on that objective match up with the organizer offered in your text. Another element to writing an extended definition for an academic paper is to study its etymology, which refers to the origin and history of the word. For example, as detailed in Merriam-Webster’s Online Dictionary, the term etymology comes from the Greek words etumos, meaning “true,” and logia, meaning “word” and “reason,” to indicate a word’s literal meaning and source. This fourteenth-century term worked its way from Greek into the English language by passing through Latin, Anglo-French, and Middle English. Unabridged dictionaries will provide the most information, usually including the time period the word came into common use, the language(s) in which some form of it was used, and the root word(s) for each of its parts. With some, you may have to identify the root word for a term and then look up that root word in the dictionary for the origin’s definition. Be sure to read the section or appendix in the dictionary that explains how to read the etymological information to gain full use of this resource tool. Lesson 5 105 Why would anyone want to incorporate this type of information into a definition paper? Sometimes a term’s etymology is so basic, such as when the root word means exactly the same as the term, no purpose is served by discussing it. On the other hand, the word’s original meaning can often shed new light on its current use and deepen your understanding. Consider the term plagiarize, which involves using someone else’s work and ideas as your own. Originally, the word came from the Latin and Greek where it meant “kidnapping,” as well as netting or trapping game ( Merriam-Webster ). Supplying this etymological information in your definition can help you portray the angry shock an author feels when his or her work is kidnapped or taken hostage by another person. In addition, it can be used to underscore the criminal connotations associated with plagiarism, thereby supporting the severe punishments imposed for such an act. Self-Check 20 In your self-check file or notebook, complete the following exercises. Refer to the paragraphs on rocks and minerals in Self-Check 19 and answer the following questions. 1. Look up the term metamorphosis in a standard college dictionary and write out several different definitions. Which one would apply to rocks? 2. Using Merriam-Webster’s Online Dictionary at http://www.merriam-webster.com/, investigate the etymology of metamorphosis. (Be sure to look up the term meta- as well.) How does the information you find help you better understand the definition? 3. What words or concepts are defined in the paragraphs? 4. How does the discussion of rocks and minerals combine definition with classification? Check your answers with those on page 166. 106 Advanced Composition NOTES 107 Examination Examination Lesson 5 Title When you feel confident that you have mastered the material in Lesson 5, go to http://www.takeexamsonline.com and submit your answers online. If you don’t have access to the Internet, you can phone in or mail in your exam. Submit your answers for this examination as soon as you complete it. Do not wait until EXAMINATION NUMBER 00000000 Whichever method you use in submitting your exam Objectives For this exam, the student will n Use the writing process to write an essay using extended definition n Write an effective thesis statement n Develop paragraphs using topic sentences, adequate detail, supporting evidence, and transitions n Develop critical reading skills n Use responsible research methods to locate appropriate secondary sources n Use MLA citation and documentation style to reference secondary source material correctly and appropriately n Quote, paraphrase, and summarize secondary source material correctly and appropriately n Use the conventions of standard written American English to produce correct, well-written essays Topic Words that have more than one definition or meaning can enrich not just your vocabulary, but also your life. As your culture evolves, your language and how you choose to express yourself are changing too. In order to fully understand the world, it’s important to fully comprehend the depth and breadth of the words that are used to describe it. Lesson 5 Using Definition with Classification EXAMINATION NUMBER 50044300 108 Examination, Lesson 5 Purpose To write a 1,500–1,700 word extended definition essay using either the word friend or the word family to make a point about how the meaning of the word has evolved to follow historical, social and cultural changes over time Method Use at least four secondary sources to support your extended definition of the term you choose. Some examples of appropriate secondary sources include 1. An etymological dictionary 2. A standard or traditional dictionary 3. An article from Expanded Academic ASAP Audience Junior and senior-level distance-education students enrolled at Penn Foster College The Writing Process Prewriting 1. Before you decide on the specific word you’ll write your essay about, take time to freewrite about each one to determine where your interest lies. This exercise should help you to decide which word you have more of your own ideas and opinions about and give you a good place to start (pages 446–450). 2. Once you’ve chosen your word, either friend or family, review the model definition essays in your textbook: Goodwin’s “Freegans: They Live Off What We Throw Away” (page 443); and Crissey’s “Dude, Do You Know What You Just Said?” (page 451). 3. Return to your freewriting to add information a. Research i. Standard definitions of the word (page 442) ii. Etymological dictionaries 1) www.Etymonline.com 2) www.oed.com Examination, Lesson 5 109 iii.Traditional dictionaries 1) www.merriam‐webster.com 2) www.dictionary.com iv. Expanded Academic ASAP 1) Expanded Academic ASAP is a subscription-only database available in Penn Foster’s digital library. You can access the database by clicking on the Library Services link in your Student Portal. 2) See the Academic Support and Online Resources section in the introduction to this study guide. b.Use negation to explain what your word does not mean and to address misconceptions (page 449). 4. Review your freewriting in order to create a thesis statement that makes a claim about your word based on all of the content you’ve developed. 5. Prepare an outline or graphic organizer (page 450) to organize your main points before you begin writing your essay. Consider using other patterns of development as you plan your body paragraphs to illustrate meaning, offer contrasts, and provide examples (pages 448-449). Drafting Use your outline or graphic organizer to draft your essay. 1. Introduce the term, provide any necessary background information, and include your thesis statement in your introduction. 2. Start each body paragraph with a topic sentence that supports your thesis. Remember that topic sentences are never questions or quotations. 3. Use transitions to end paragraphs and to guide readers to the next idea. Revision Use the flowchart on pages 459–460 in your textbook to help you revise your essay. 1. Consider your essay from a reader’s perspective. Do you have a thesis statement? Have you adequately identified the distinguishing characteristics of your term? 2. Employ the recommended revision strategies if you have answered “no” to any of the questions on the flowchart. 110 Advanced Composition Consider using the Smarthinking tutoring service to review your essay. A tutor will provide feedback that you can use to revise your essay before you submit for a grade. To learn how to use the Smarthinking Writing Center, watch this video: http://community.pennfoster.edu/docs/DOC‐62283. Submit Your Exam Your paper should be formatted as follows: n 1-inch margins on all sides n 12-point Times New Roman font n Double spacing 1. Use the header function in your word processing program to enter your personal identification and exam information: Student Name [tab] ID Number [tab] Exam Number Street Address City, State, Zip Email Address 2. Save your exam with the file name: IDNumber_ExamNumber_LastName_FirstName 3. Save your exam in either MS Word or Rich Text Format (.rtf). If an instructor cannot open the file you submit, it will be returned ungraded. 4. When your exam has been evaluated and returned to you, you will be able to review the instructor’s comments by clicking on the View Project button next to the grade and downloading the Instructor Feedback File. If you have trouble viewing the file, please contact an instructor. Written examinations must be typed, double-spaced, using a standard 12-point font and left justification. Use 1-inch margins at the top and bottom and 1.25-inch margins for the left and right sides of the document. Each page must have a properly formatted header containing your name, student number, exam number, page number, mailing address, and email address (see page 4 for an example). Name each document using your student number first, then the six-digit lesson number, and finally your last name (for example, 23456789_500680 Doe). Save your work as a Microsoft Word document or as a Rich Text Format (.rtf) file. 111 Using Comparison and Contrast in Novels Lesson 6 Lesson 6 and Movies INTRODUCTION Regardless of type, the purposes of academic writing are to inform, to communicate feelings and ideas, or to persuade. Analyzing the purpose of another writer’s work or writing to achieve your purpose requires effective critical thinking skills. After all, if you’re going to praise or criticize another’s opinions or try to persuade readers to agree with yours, you must understand the topic and have something worthwhile to say about it. In this lesson you’ll practice analyzing ideas and look at additional ways to integrate pertinent ideas into an essay. OBJECTIVES When you complete this lesson, you’ll be able to n Explain point-by-point organization for comparison and contrast n Characterize subject-by-subject organization for comparison and contrast n Analyze short stories using comparison and contrast Note: At the end of this lesson, you’ll use the novel and movie you chose when you started the course for the comparison and contrast essay. 112 Advanced Composition ASSIGNMENT 21: REVIEWING COMPARISON AND CONTRAST Read the following assignment. Then read pages 374–384 in Chapter 15 of your textbook. Be sure to complete the selfcheck to gauge your progress. Stanley is evil; Livingston is good. That’s sharp contrast. While both Stanley and Livingston enjoy fishing, Stanley ties his own flies and fishes in sparkling mountain streams, while Livingston uses a bamboo pole and earthworms at the local fishing hole. That’s comparison and contrast. To compare is to show similarities; to contrast is to show differences. You make these judgments in your daily life without thinking about it, comparing two sisters’ personalities or your present partner with a former one. We compare the advantages and disadvantages of renting or buying and the nutritional value and cost of one food compared to another. As you study the use of contrast and comparison in a paper, think about how this pattern might be used with other patterns, such as definition. READING HIGHLIGHTS Pages 374–379. College-level writing has two basic approaches to comparison and contrast. The point-by-point approach is illustrated by “Amusing Ourselves to Depth: Is the Onion Our Most Intelligent Newspaper?” on pages 375–377. As you read it, try to locate the points of comparison or contrast. The piece by Ian Frazier, on pages 377–379, demonstrates the subject-by-subject approach, in which the author compares the romantic days of pay phones with today’s hectic cell-phone lifestyle. Pages 379–381. Carefully review the characteristics of comparison or contrast essays. Key points for this pattern of development are n A clear purpose n A specific basis of comparison n A fair appraisal Lesson 6 113 Comparison or contrast makes a point. Why would I compare white pine trees to Douglas fir trees? Perhaps I’m comparing and contrasting their relative virtues as Christmas trees. Why would I compare and contrast jogging and walking as aerobic exercise? Perhaps I want to compare the two with respect to the age and physical condition of people who jog or walk. If I’m a long-distance runner, I might wish to praise the endorphin highs of the three-mile jog as opposed to the milder joys of walking. Details and sensory impressions provide the flavor of any effective comparison or contrast. Pages 381–387. The graphic organizers on pages 382–383 offer examples of point-by-point and subject-by-subject approaches. Compare and contrast the two samples to see how they’re different. The essay “Dearly Disconnected” by Ian Frazier on pages 377–379 illustrates a subject-by-subject organization. After revisiting the essay, turn to Figure 15.3 on page 384 and study it to see how subjects are framed and presented by the author. Self-Check 21 In your self-check file or notebook, complete the following exercises. 1. Analyze the essay “Dearly Disconnected” (pages 377–379) for its subject-by-subject organization. State the topic of the essay, noting what’s being compared and contrasted. Summarize the subjects of paragraphs 1, 2, 4, 7, and 8, identifying a thematic idea that stands out. For instance, the “seediness and sadness” of pay phones is characterized in paragraph 5. 2. Identify two bases of comparison for this topic: Advantages and Disadvantages of Integrating Public School Classrooms by Gender. Write a working thesis statement for each of them, one pro and the other one con. Check your answers with those on page 167. 114 Advanced Composition ASSIGNMENT 22: INTEGRATING COMPARISON AND CONTRAST INTO AN ESSAY Read the following assignment. Then read pages 384–396 in Chapter 15 of your textbook. Be sure to complete the self-check to gauge your progress. Comparison and contrast may be used along with other patterns of development, such as narration, argument, or definition. First, you must decide the purpose of your essay, and then choose the best approach. By reading the examples and studying the flow charts, you’ll be preparing to write an effective essay of your own. READING HIGHLIGHTS Page 385. Study the five tips for integrating comparison and contrast into a paper. Reviewing these key ideas several times is a good way to reinforce them so they become second nature. Are you informing or persuading your audience? Do you need to take a stand on an issue? Be sure that your thesis reflects your purpose and choose the method of development that would best present your ideas to your audience. Finally, particularly when comparison and contrast isn’t the primary developmental pattern of your essay, provide transitions that ease your reader back to your primary pattern of development. Pages 391–392. Figure 15.4 is a flowchart for revising a comparison or contrast essay. For now read through it and see what you’ll be looking for when you revise. It may save you time if you’re aware of the necessary elements as you write. Pages 393–394. Even if you’ve already read this student essay, “Border Bites,” by Heather Gianakos, read it again, this time with a sharper eye for analyzing it. Pages 395–396. Review this section to become more skilled at reading comparison and contrast essays—your own, as well as those written by someone else. Lesson 6 115 ASSIGNMENT 23: THINKING CRITICALLY ABOUT COMPARISON AND CONTRAST Read the following assignment. Then study pages 396–407 in Chapter 15 and pages 615–619 in Chapter 22 of your textbook. Be sure to complete the self-check to gauge your progress. In working with any kind of text, analysis means reading closely, beyond the meaning of the words—looking for effective and ineffective wording, questioning the assumptions and opinions of the author, and inspecting the organization and how it affects the presentation of ideas. In this assignment, you’ll focus on analyzing comparison-and-contrast essays. If you’ve read these essays before, apply your sharpened skills to reading more critically this time. Self-Check 22 Review the essay “Border Bites,” by Heather Gianakos; then complete items 1–3 in your self-check file or notebook. 1. From Gianakos’s concluding paragraph, summarize the contrast she makes between Southwestern and Mexican food. 2. What are the author’s points in paragraphs 1, 3, and 4? 3. What nutrition-oriented information in this comparison could be used for another comparison/contrast approach to this topic? Check your answers with those on page 167. 116 Advanced Composition READING HIGHLIGHTS Pages 397–401. Read the essay by Daniel Goleman, “His Marriage and Hers: Childhood Roots.” Goleman is a pioneer in developing concepts about emotional intelligence. In this essay, he’s exploring and explaining the different “emotional climates” that meet in subtle or stormy ways within a marriage. The comparison and contrast in the essay is based on views by wives and husbands. Pages 403–405. In the essay by Abigail Zuger, “Defining a Doctor, with a Tear, a Shrug, and a Schedule,” you’ll consider and the use of comparison and contrast combined with other patterns of development. You’ll be further analyzing these essays for your self-check for this assignment. Pages 406–407. Study the topics on these two pages and choose an approach for each—to express your ideas, inform your readers, or persuade your readers. Pages 615–619. Field research involves you, the researcher, generating your own primary source material in conjunction with other research methods. Cautiously use the three approaches covered in the textbook, allowing the purpose and audience of your research to dictate whether to conduct field research and, if so, which approach to use. For your paper analyzing the lyrics of the song, interviewing the lyricist could have been a useful approach—depending on your ability to gain access to that person. For the definition paper, you might find it helpful to survey your neighbors about their family traditions to classify your traditions within the neighborhood. Many professionals conduct observations on a regular basis. For instance, a supervisor observes a production line to determine problem areas or a principal observes a teacher to evaluate interactions with students. Regardless of the approach, you begin field research only after you’ve narrowed your topic, developed your working thesis, and usually after you’ve researched other sources to educate yourself about your angle on the topic. The goal is to enter field research to achieve a specified purpose so the information you gather is relevant to your thesis. Lesson 6 117 ASSIGNMENT 24: ANALYZING SHORT STORIES USING COMPARISON AND CONTRAST Read the following assignment. Then read pages 688–698 in Chapter 24 of your textbook. Be sure to complete the selfcheck to gauge your progress. The critical reading and thinking skills you developed while analyzing figurative language in poetry and song lyrics can be applied to narrative fiction as well. To write about literature, you need to develop an original point of view on a text. In a research paper, you’ll use secondary sources to support your ideas about the work. One common approach to writing about literature is comparison and contrast. Self-Check 23 Review the essay by Abigail Zuger on pages 403–405; then complete items 1 and 2 in your self-check file or notebook. 1. Zuger uses three patterns of development other than comparison and contrast. Identify them by paragraph and summarize how each is used. 2. Does the author use a point-by-point approach or a subject-by-subject approach? Is it effective? Why or why not? Check your answers with those on page 168. 118 Advanced Composition READING HIGHLIGHTS Pages 685–689. Like poetry, a short story requires more than one reading to comprehend because the story isn’t only about what happens; it’s also about the ideas presented by the author. The reading strategies offered here will help you understand and interpret the author’s meaning through his or her use of setting, characters, point of view, figures of speech, and other literary devices. These strategies apply to novels and movies, as well. Pages 689–693. Use the reading strategies you learned on page 687 in your textbook as you read “The Secret Lion” by Alberto Ríos. First, establish the literal meaning of the story: ensure that you know what’s happening and where, and who the characters are as well as their relationships to each other. Then read the story a second time to see if any patterns develop that could help you achieve a better understanding of the title. Pages 693–696. Study the elements of narrative fiction on these pages, focusing on short stories. The setting of a narrative includes the time, the place, and the situation. Imagine script instructions from a screenplay to get the idea. “It’s 1864. The place is a Pennsylvania town called Gettysburg. Over three hot days in July, we observe the Battle of Gettysburg from the perspective of many of the major players on both sides.” Or, “It’s October, 1934. Two hobos, Cal and Big Bill, ride the rails in search of a meal or a warm, dry barn.” Character is revealed by action (and reaction) and dialogue; often the narrator is one of the characters. The point of view is simply the perspective from which a story is told. A story may be told in the first person (“I was late arriving for my appointment with Johnny Black”) or the narrator can be an omniscient third-person observer who describes the unfolding of the drama and knows the thoughts of the characters. A good plot involves a sequence of events that engage the reader in some way; usually plot depends on some kind of conflict. All these elements work together to express the theme of the story, which is the point the writer is trying to make. Themes often involve a message about human experience or the human condition. The questions on page 696 on guiding an analysis of theme will also help you compare and contrast your book and movie. Lesson 6 119 Page 696. For your comparison and contrast essay, you’ll analyze the similarities and differences between a novel and the film adaption of the novel to draw conclusions about the significance of those differences. Review the questions in the figure on page 696 in your textbook to get started on your analysis. As you narrow your focus, choose an approach to the text that you find interesting. The purpose of the essay is to explain the significance of the differences you find between the novel and the movie, so your thesis should address that goal. For example, a novel might offer a more nuanced view of the villain in the story, making her a somewhat sympathetic character, whereas the movie portrays her as completely bad and undeserving of the audience’s pity. As the author, your role is to explain the impact this change has on the story as a whole. You most likely won’t be able to address every difference, and not every difference is significant enough to warrant analysis, so you’ll need to choose the main elements that you believe make the biggest impact on the story. Once you’ve gathered your main points, you can decide which method of organization, point-by-point or subject-by-subject, will work best for your essay. To support your assertions about the novel and movie, you’ll need to incorporate research. Reviews of movies and books frequently provide some type of comparison and contrast, though they often cover more than one area. Look for longer reviews that address the issues of adaptation and the expert opinions of movie critics that will lend credibility to your analysis. Remember that analysis isn’t summary. When you analyzed your song, you thought carefully about how the writer used figurative language and how the song impacted its audience. For your comparison and contrast essay, you’ll provide plot points, but they should serve to support your argument. Pages 696–698. “The Story of an Hour,” by Kate Chopin, is a richly descriptive narrative that ends with an ironic twist. Pay attention to the structure of the story and the interaction of the characters. Note: Access the Student Portal to watch the Using Comparison and Contrast/Analyzing a Novel lecture and take the Comparison and Contrast quiz. 120 Advanced Composition Self-Check 24 Reread “The Story of an Hour” beginning on page 696; then complete items 1–4 in your self-check file or notebook. 1. In what general time period does the story take place? How much time elapses from its beginning to its end? 2. Who is the main character? What physical characteristics does he or she have? Do his or her physical traits have any impact on the plot? 3. Does the main character change in the course of the story? In what way? 4. What is the theme of the story? How do you know? Check your answers with those on page 168. 121 Objectives For this exam, the student will n Use the writing process to draft and revise a comparison and contrast essay n Write an effective thesis statement n Identify, define, and analyze literary elements n Develop critical reading skills n Use responsible research methods to locate appropriate secondary sources n Use Modern Language Association (MLA) citation and documentation style to reference secondary source material correctly and appropriately Introduction For decades, the film industry has adapted beloved books into movies. When a book is adapted into a film, the story reaches a wider audience and provides a new perspective on the text. In this assignment, you will use comparison and contrast techniques to reveal the ways the plot, characters, and theme of a story are impacted as elements of the narrative change. Topic To compare and contrast a book and a film based on that book. Prewriting Examination Lesson 6 Examination Examination EXAMINATION NUMBER 50046900 122 Examination, Lesson 6 Purpose To show how adaptations from novel to film affect the story’s elements, such as plot, character and theme in significant ways. Method 1. To prepare an outline or graphic organizer that will serve as the foundation for a 1800 – 2000 word comparison and contrast essay. 2. To begin the research process by preparing a bibliography in Modern Language Association citation and documentation format that consists of at least six sources. n 2 primary sources: the book and the film n 4 secondary sources: book and film reviews, critiques, articles about the book and film, profiles of the author and/or the director and actors that focus on the content of the work. Audience Junior and senior-level distance education students enrolled at Penn Foster College Process Brainstorm 1. Watch the Comparison and Contrast lecture notes video on your My Courses page. This video reviews the essay requirements and comparison and contrast techniques. 2. Read the book and watch the film you’ve chosen to write about. Prewrite 1. Develop the content for your outline/graphic organizer by freewriting about the changes you’ve noticed. Review pages 366-369 of your textbook and identify a few bases of comparison: Examination, Lesson 6 123 a. Are there are scenes omitted or added? How does this affect the sequence of events? b. What is the central conflict of the book? The film? How do the author and the director present the conflict? Are the stakes higher in one or the other? c. Is the main character’s personality different in the film? How is it different? How does it affect the way we understand his/her character? Is the narrator of the story the same? Does any element of the story change because the audience cannot be in the narrator’s head at all times? How does this change your understanding of the characters or the story? d. How is theme revealed throughout the book and the film? 4. Now that you’ve compared and contrasted the book and the film, freewrite (page110-111) on what the significance of these changes are to help you develop your ideas for the thesis statement. 5. Work through the Guided Writing Assignment for Comparison and Contrast prewriting on page 387-388 of your textbook. This assignment will help you determine your purpose and focus for your comparison and contrast essay. Research 1. The book and the film are your primary sources and count as two sources in your bibliography and toward the research requirement for your essay. Be sure that you have carefully noted where you found them, either online or in print. 2. You will need a minimum of four other sources. These sources can be reviews, articles, and interviews related to the book and film. 3. Go to the library. Your Penn Foster digital library provides resources that will help you to meet the research requirements for your essay, but keep in mind that research in a library, even a digital one, is not like searching online. To learn more, visit the Penn Foster Library site on the Community here: http://community.pennfoster.edu/community/acade‐ mic‐groups/digital‐library‐information‐literacy. 124 Advanced Composition n. Expanded Academic ASAP is a subscription-only database available in Penn Foster’s digital library. You can access the database by clicking on the Library Services link in your Student Portal. See the “Academic Support and Online Resources” section in the introduction to this study guide. 4. Search online, but remember that you will need to evaluate your sources carefully; review page 583-592 in your textbook. a. Reviews by book and film critics b. Interviews with the author and/or the director and actors c. Profiles by journalists and other professional writers Organize You may choose to submit either a formal outline or a graphic organizer for this assignment. Your outline or graphic organizer should be sufficiently detailed to illustrate your plan for your essay. It should be as detailed as possible. Reread page 148-151 in your textbook on graphic organizers and outlines. 1. This assignment (both prewriting and essay) requires you analyze the significance of the differences between the book and the film. Please review pages 379-383 in your textbook for the characteristics of a comparison and contrast essay and two sample graphic organizers. 2. Be sure to state your main points, secondary points, and supporting evidence. Include any references to secondary sources as well, and use MLA parenthetical citation to link them to your annotated bibliography. 3. Revise your work to ensure that your thesis statement, main points, evidence and secondary sources all work together to address the purpose of the assignment. Assignment checklist For this assignment, you must submit your n Outline or graphic organizer n Bibliography Examination, Lesson 6 125 Lesson 6 Title When you feel confident that you have mastered the material in Lesson 6, go to http://www.takeexamsonline.com and submit your answers online. If you don’t have access to the Internet, you can phone in or mail in your exam. Submit your answers for this examination as soon as you complete it. Do not wait until another examination is ready. Questions 1–20: Select the one best answer to each question. EXAMINATION NUMBER 00000000 Whichever method you use in submitting your exam answers to the school, you must use the number above. For the quickest test results, go to http://www.takeexamsonline.com Submit Your Exam Your paper should be formatted as follows: n 1-inch margins on all sides n 12-point Times New Roman font n Double spacing 1. Use the header function in your word processing program to enter your personal identification and exam information: Student Name [tab] ID Number [tab] Exam Number Street Address City, State, Zip Email Address 2. Save your exam with the file name: IDNumber_ExamNumber_LastName_FirstName 3. Save your exam in either MS Word or Rich Text Format (.rtf). If an instructor cannot open the file you submit, it will be returned ungraded. 4. When your exam has been evaluated and returned to you, you will be able to review the instructor’s comments by clicking on the View Project button next to the grade and downloading the Instructor Feedback File. If you have trouble viewing the file, please contact an instructor. For this examination, submit the required work as instructed to Penn Foster College. Written examinations must be typed, double-spaced, using a standard 12-point font and left justification. Use 1-inch margins at the top and bottom and 1.25-inch margins for the left and right sides of the document. Each page must have a properly formatted header containing your name, student number, exam number, page number, mailing address, and email address (see page 4 for an example). Name each document using your student number first, then the six-digit lesson number, and finally your last name (for example, 23456789_500680 Doe). Save your work as a Microsoft Word document or as a Rich Text Format (.rtf) file. 126 Examination, Lesson 6 NOTES Examination, Lesson 6 127 Objectives For this exam, the student will n Use the writing process to draft and revise a comparison and contrast essay n Write an effective thesis statement n Develop paragraphs using topic sentences, adequate detail, supporting evidence, and transitions n Identify, define, and analyze literary elements n Use responsible research methods to locate appropriate secondary sources n Use Modern Language Association (MLA) citation and documentation style to reference secondary source material correctly and appropriately n Quote, paraphrase, and summarize secondary source material correctly and appropriately n Use the conventions of standard written American English to produce correct, well-written essays Topic To compare and contrast a book and a film based on that book. You will develop your essay from the outline or graphic organizer you wrote for your previous assignment. Do not switch topic; use your instructor’s feedback to refine your ideas and to write your essay. Essay Examination Lesson 6 Examination Examination EXAMINATION NUMBER 50044400 128 Examination, Lesson 6 Purpose To write a 1,800-2,000 word essay that uses comparison and contrast techniques to show how the changes made affect the story’s plot, characters, and theme in significant ways. NOTE: You may not submit this essay until you have received a passing grade on your prewriting assignment. You will be expected to use the feedback you received from your instructor to create a draft and revise your essay. Audience Junior and senior-level distance education students enrolled at Penn Foster College Process Drafting 1. You have received feedback on your prewriting assignment that should help you to develop your essay. Review your outline or graphic organizer to ensure that you understand the instructor’s comments and recommendations. 2. Review a. Chapter 7, Drafting an Essay b. Chapter 8, Writing Effective Paragraphs 3. As you begin to draft the ideas you included in your outline or graphic organizer, follow the guidelines for writing your a. Title, 157 b. Introduction, 152-156 c. Conclusion, 156-157 4. The content of each paragraph should be confined to the information introduced in the topic sentence (167-170) and should develop that topic logically based on the plan you provided in your outline or graphic organizer (179-170). Examination, Lesson 6 129 5. Review the Guided Writing Assignment for Comparison and Contrast drafting on page 389-90 of your textbook. Follow the instructions to a. Choose a method of organization b. Draft your essay 6. Review Chapter 23 on incorporating research into your essay. Be sure to a. use attributions to introduce borrowed content (631-633) b. properly punctuate quotations (633-636) c. provide in-text, or parenthetical, citations for secondary sources in MLA format (640-644) d. Use MLA format for your list of works cited (644-655). Revising 1. Review Chapter 9 on Revising Your Content and Organization 2. Use the checklist on page 186-187 to check your essay and revise the elements to which you answered “no.” 3. Use the checklist on page 189 to check to your paragraphs to ensure that they are logically developed and organized effectively. Revise the elements to which you answered “no.” 4. Review the Guided Writing Assignment for Comparison and Contrast revision on page 390-392 of your textbook to revise, edit and proofread your essay before you submit. Consider using the Smarthinking tutoring service to review your essay. A tutor will provide feedback that you can use to revise your essay before you submit for a grade. To learn how to use the Smarthinking Writing Center, watch this video: http://community.pennfoster.edu/docs/DOC-62283. Assignment checklist For this assignment, you must submit your n Essay n List of works cited 130 Examination, Lesson 6 Please save all your work in one document; do not upload separate documents for review. Use page breaks between your song lyrics and essay. Your list of works cited should also be a separate page. Review the sample MLA-style essay on page 632-638 in your textbook. Submit Your Exam Your paper should be formatted as follows: n 1-inch margins on all sides n 12-point Times New Roman font n Double spacing 1. Use the header function in your word processing program to enter your personal identification and exam information: Student Name [tab] ID Number [tab] Exam Number Street Address City, State, Zip Email Address 2. Save your exam with the file name: IDNumber_ExamNumber_LastName_FirstName 3. Save your exam in either MS Word or Rich Text Format (.rtf). If an instructor cannot open the file you submit, it will be returned ungraded. 4. When your exam has been evaluated and returned to you, you will be able to review the instructor’s comments by clicking on the View Project button next to the grade and downloading the Instructor Feedback File. If you have trouble viewing the file, please contact an instructor. Written examinations must be typed, double-spaced, using a standard 12-point font and left justification. Use 1-inch margins at the top and bottom and 1.25-inch margins for the left and right sides of the document. Each page must have a properly formatted header containing your name, student number, exam number, page number, mailing address, and email address (see page 4 for an example). Name each document using your student number first, then the six-digit lesson number, and finally your last name (for example, 23456789_500680 Doe). Save your work as a Microsoft Word document or as a Rich Text Format (.rtf) file. 131 Writing an Argument INTRODUCTION Arguments are part of daily life. Whether a person is passionate about his or her point of view or simply wants to make a point, the proper approach to persuasion or argument makes all the difference in whether a point of view is accepted by others. Some arguments, such as who is the all-time best quarterback or whether German cars are superior to American cars, are merely opinion. But when it comes to public-policy issues, like capital punishment or civil rights, and personalfulfillment issues, like where to live or how to spend leisure time, differences in viewpoint can be examined through sound and reasoned arguments. As an educated citizen, you’ll benefit from learning the art of persuading others to your point of view. OBJECTIVES When you complete this lesson, you’ll be able to n List the basic parts of an argument n Describe effective strategies for reading an argument n Explain the analytical skills used in critically evaluating an argument n Identify strategies for writing effective argument essays ASSIGNMENT 25: THE ELEMENTS OF ARGUMENT Read the following assignment. Then read pages 514–520 in Chapter 19 of your textbook. Be sure to complete the selfcheck to gauge your progress. Lesson 7 Lesson 7 132 Advanced Composition You might win a personal argument by sheer force of personality or persistence, but a written argument takes planning and organization to ensure your points are made and your strategy is effective. Your written argument requires you to make a claim and then prove it by providing reliable secondary sources that support your point of view. You’ll need to employ reliable methods of persuasion to convince your readers, including evidence and reasons, but you might also appeal to their emotions, needs, and values to win them over to your way of thinking on your topic. READING HIGHLIGHTS Pages 514–516. The basic parts of an argument include (1) an issue, (2) a claim, and (3) support. Here’s an example: I think the town council should insist that the hedge at the corner of Grove Street and Second Avenue be trimmed (1). That hedge obstructs drivers’ vision and constitutes a hazard (2). And that’s not just my opinion; the police have recorded seven accidents at that corner over the last two months (3). The issue is framed, a claim is made, and support is offered for the claim. Review the essay by Lynn Steirer on pages 515–516. As you read, identify the issue, the claim, and the support(s) for the claim. Pages 516–517. Make sure you understand the three types of claims and the various types of support presented. When you write an argument, your thesis statement will generally frame your claim. In some cases, your claim may be implied, though you must state the thesis in the paper you’ll write for this exam. Pages 517–519. Without solid support, an argument is just an unsubstantiated opinion. Support for a claim can be based on reasons, evidence, or appeals to emotion, needs, or values. By using the proper approach for your audience and backing your claim with solid information and ideas, you can build a strong argument. You can practice recognizing the elements of Lesson 7 133 argument by seeing if you can find claims and support in advertisements as you read and watch television. Be especially alert for appeals, which are the basis of most advertising. Pages 519–520. Every argument, by its nature, has opposing points of view. By anticipating other points of view as you write your argument, you can refute them as part of your essay. You can acknowledge an opposing view by admitting the part that has some merit or showing how the opposition is weak or insufficient. The keystone of an effective argument is its conclusion. A strong finish will leave your reader with a final impression of your argument and its strength. In your assigned reading, note the strong conclusion offered by Lynn Steirer at the end of her essay. Self-Check 25 In your self-check file or notebook, complete the following exercises. Read and critically evaluate two essays. First, read “Right Place, Wrong Face” by Alton Fitzgerald White on pages 229–230. Then, read “The Lady in Red” on pages 235–237. Next, turn to page 237 and examine the “Making Connections” box at the bottom of the page. Under “Analyzing the Readings,” respond to both items. Check your answers with those on page 169. 134 Advanced Composition ASSIGNMENT 26: STRATEGIES FOR READING AND CRITICALLY ANALYZING AN ARGUMENT Read the following assignment. Then read pages 520–533 in Chapter 19 of your textbook. Be sure to complete the selfcheck to gauge your progress. Although it’s easy to react emotionally when you read an argument you don’t agree with, remember that in analyzing it you’re looking for a valid claim supported by acceptable reasons and evidence. Even if you disagree with the claim, you might recognize that the argument is sound. If the author has strong credentials and is published in a reliable periodical, such as a professional journal or a respected newspaper, the argument also has more credibility. Before you reject an argument, make sure you have sufficient knowledge on the subject to judge it fairly. READING HIGHLIGHTS Pages 520–522. Be prepared to read an argument at least twice and pay attention to the title, the author, and the publication. If you’re not familiar with the topic or the author, do a little research. More than once a humorist like Dave Barry, who’s mentioned in your text, has received letters rebuking him for his foolish notions, when in fact he was using exaggeration and sarcasm to make his point. Pages 522–524. Read the essay “Organ Donation: A LifeSaving Gift,” which is marked up to show you how the piece is structured. For example, notice that the thesis statement appears as the first sentence of the second paragraph. Note the use of transitions, source quotations, and author’s refutations of an opposing view. Pages 524–529. Review the sample graphic organizer for an argument essay on page 525 in your textbook to familiarize yourself with the structure of an argument. Then think about what’s involved in writing the summary of an essay. Take note of the four steps in that process on pages 526–527. Lesson 7 135 Next, review what it means to think critically about an essay—in this case, the organ donation article. Figure 19.2, a graphic organizer for that essay, on pages 528–529 will help. Pages 530–531. To do a proper job of analyzing an argument, you have to identify the writer’s purpose, the audience, the claim, and the support for the claim. Support may include factual evidence, appeals, or a mixture of the two. You also must assess the writer’s credibility based on his or her credentials, as well as the essay itself. An author strengthens his or her credibility by adequately addressing opposing views—that is, by including a refutation in his or her argument. Pages 531–532. Rhetorical fallacies—errors in reasoning— are common in argument essays. Make sure you study the types of faulty reasoning on these pages because one of these mistakes in an essay can destroy any credibility the writer may have. Unless you’re aware of these tactics, however, they may seem to make sense when presented skillfully. Emotional appeals are another tactic that can be either glaringly obvious if poorly presented or effectively manipulative if done well. Much political and commercial rhetoric is characterized by deceptive claims and appeals based on emotional appeals. Study Table 19.1 on page 531 for examples of unfair emotional appeals. Page 533. Study Table 19.2 on page 533 and flag it for future reference. It offers you a checklist for analyzing an argument essay. Pages 532–534. To think critically about an argument, you may be required to compare two or more sources on a particular issue. This process is called synthesis. It’s important to think critically about the arguments that are presented to you. You’ll want to weigh opposing views and consider the writer’s purpose carefully. The Checklist for Analyzing an Argument Essay on page 533 in your textbook can help you make careful decisions about issues you need to consider and assist you in developing your own arguments in a convincing yet responsible manner. 136 Advanced Composition Pages 534–539. To apply your skills, you’ll read and analyze two essays. The first essay, by Peter Bregman on pages 534–536, opposes the values of multitasking and offers six bulleted points to support his thesis. The second essay, by David Silverman on pages 537–539, defends multitasking and offers four counter arguments that oppose Bregman’s thesis. For now, simply read the essays. You’ll analyze the essays in your self-check. Self-Check 26 Having read and thought about the essays for and against multitasking, complete the following exercises in your self-check file or notebook. 1. Turn to page 536 of your text, after the Bregman essay. Respond to all four items under “Examining the Reading.” 2. Next, turn to page 539 of your text, after the Silverman essay. Respond to all four items under “Examining the Reading.” 3. Using Table 19.1 as a reference, identify the unfair appeal to emotion in each of the following statements. a. Folks, you all know me. I’ve stood up for your best interests ever since eighth grade, when I was student council president. b. These single mothers—and I bet you’ve known a few—often work two or three jobs and can hardly feed their kids, much less spend time reading to their kids when they come home exhausted at the end of the day. c. Why would Jake Cleaver give a fig about your low wages and long hours? He was born with a silver spoon in his mouth. He pays his gardeners less than minimum wage! d. Oprah Winfrey is against the war, which proves my brother is right. Check your answers with those on page 169. Lesson 7 Title When you feel confident that you have mastered the material in Lesson 7, go to http://www.takeexamsonline.com and submit your answers online. If you don’t have access to the Internet, you can phone in or mail in your exam. Submit your answers for this examination as soon as you complete it. Do not wait until another examination is ready. Questions 1–20: Select the one best answer to each question. EXAMINATION NUMBER 00000000 Whichever method you use in submitting your exam answers to the school, you must use the number above. For the quickest test results, go to http://www.takeexamsonline.com ASSIGNMENT 27: WRITING ARGUMENTS Read the following assignment. Then read pages 544–557 in Chapter 20 of your textbook. Be sure to complete the selfcheck to gauge your progress. You’ve learned to identify the elements of an argument; now turn your attention to the art of writing arguments. The heading that begins this reading assignment is “What Is an Argument?” We’ll approach this question from the perspective of preparing, organizing, and writing an argument essay. READING HIGHLIGHTS Pages 544–546. What is an argument? You can begin to assess that question by reading William Safire’s essay “Abolish the Penny” on pages 545–546. Safire is a master of the art of editorial writing, but don’t be sidetracked by his wit. Look for the elements of an argument with which you’re now familiar. Pages 546–548. The key to preparing a good argument is making sure you have an issue that’s controversial enough. Once you have your topic and have narrowed and defined your focus, you can work on your claim. Study the material about narrowing a general idea to a specific claim on page 547 in your textbook. Pages 548–549. Audience analysis is a major part of preparing an argument. Are you approaching an agreeing, neutral, or disagreeing audience? It can be challenging to sway an audience that’s neutral or on the fence. For the disagreeing audience, your text suggests finding some kind of common ground between your position and the opposing position of your audience. For example, “I know we seem poles apart on the immigration issue, but I think we can agree that we want to live in a fair and just nation.” Humor and wit can also help soften a cool or unreceptive audience. Pages 550–552. A good argument requires sound evidence that’s not only relevant, but also well integrated into the organization of your argument. Convincing evidence requires rigorous logic. Be sure you understand the difference between inductive and deductive reasoning. Lesson 7 137 138 Advanced Composition Inductive reasoning gathers evidence that points to a conclusion. For example, n Evidence: The polar icecaps are melting. n Evidence: Glaciers around the world are melting. n Evidence: The hottest years on record have occurred over the last decade. n Conclusion: Global warming is a real and pressing issue. Deductive reasoning begins with a major premise, proceeds to a minor premise, and then to a conclusion. Here’s an example: n Major premise: All birds have functional or vestigial feathered wings. n Minor premise: Song sparrows have wings. n Conclusion: Song sparrows are birds. This is a rather simple example of a syllogism, which is the basic form of a deductive argument. Study the examples in your text. Page 552. If your argument doesn’t stir a bit of passion in you, it’s unlikely to move the emotions of your audience. Your objective in a compelling argument is to move hearts and minds in favor of your argument by appealing to your audience’s needs and values. On the other hand, a sound argument can be made better by recognizing opposing points of view, whether you acknowledge, accommodate, or refute them. Pages 553–557. A graphic organizer can be very helpful in sorting out the parts of your argument. In this section, you’ll see the basic form and a completed organizer for the essay, “Eating Meat for the Environment.” Before reading this piece by Lisa M. Hamilton, study Figure 20.1. Lesson 7 139 ASSIGNMENT 28: ANALYZING AND RESPONDING TO ARGUMENTS Read the following assignment. Then read pages 568–571 in Chapter 20 of your textbook. Be sure to complete the selfcheck to gauge your progress. In this assignment, you’ll begin by reading a fascinating student essay by James Sturm called “Pull the Plug on Explicit Lyrics.” Your objective, made evident in the self-check, will be pursuing an extensive analysis of the piece that will help you better understand how to analyze and respond to an argument. Self-Check 27 In your self-check file or notebook, complete the following exercises. 1. Exercise 20.1 on page 547: Choose two of the five issues for your response. 2. Exercise 20.2 on page 548: Choose two of the five issues for your response. 3. Exercise 20.3 on page 549: For one of the three claims, discuss arguing it before three kinds of audiences, as specified in the instructions. 4. Exercise 20.4 on page 553: Reviewing the three claims given in Exercise 20.3, identify opposing viewpoints and discus your approach to acknowledging, accommodating, or refuting them. Respond to all three claims. Check your answers with those on page 170. 140 Advanced Composition READING HIGHLIGHTS Pages 568–570. As you read and reread the essay, look for the author’s thesis statement. Notice how the author accommodates opposing viewpoints. Also notice the author’s effective use of transitions. As you read, make notations as you think about your feelings and reactions to the essay. For example, allow yourself to form a tentative sense of just how effectively the author establishes contact with his audience. Finally, feel free to think about your personal experience and attitudes about present-day popular music. How do you think vulgar or suggestive lyrics have either attracted or repulsed you? Final Examination: Worth 30 percent of your course grade, this examination is weighted as a proctored exam; therefore, you won’t take an additional proctored exam for Advanced Composition at the end of the semester. Self-Check 28 In your self-check file or notebook, complete the specified exercises. All of the exercises are found on page 570. 1. Analyze the Writer’s Technique: Respond to items 1 and 3. 2. Thinking Critically about Argument: Respond to all five items. 3. Reacting to the Reading: Respond to all three items. Check your answers with those on page 174. 141 Objectives For this exam, the student will n Use the writing process to write an argumentative essay n Write an effective thesis statement n Develop paragraphs using topic sentences, adequate detail, supporting evidence, and transitions n Develop critical reading skills n Use responsible research methods to locate appropriate secondary sources n Use Modern Language Association (MLA) citation and documentation style to reference secondary source material correctly and appropriately n Quote, paraphrase, and summarize secondary source material correctly and appropriately n Use the conventions of standard written American English to produce correct, well-written essays. Introduction The widespread accessibility of modern technology has given us many new possibilities. We’re now able to obtain information quickly and easily than ever before. We can keep in touch family and friends online and make friends with people we may never meet. We’re able to program destinations into navigation systems and follow spoken directions without ever consulting a map. However, many believe that this constant access to different kinds of technology makes us more distracted, less able to communicate meaningfully with each other, and generally less capable. Writing an Argument Lesson 7 Examination Examination EXAMINATION NUMBER 50044500 142 Examination, Lesson 7 Topic To write a 2,200-2,500 word argument essay in which you identify one facet of modern technology that is debatable or controversial because people may or may not rely on it too much. Purpose To persuade your audience that this particular facet of modern technology either should or should not be limited due to people’s reliance on it. Methods To use at least six secondary sources to support your argument including 1. A minimum of three articles from Expanded Academic ASAP 2. A minimum of three secondary sources that you have evaluated according to the guidelines in your textbook (583-592). Audience Junior and senior-level distance education students enrolled at Penn Foster College Process Prewriting Since you are working with a very broad subject, technology, you need to narrow it down to a manageable level. 1. Review chapter 5 in your textbook on “Prewriting”, specifically, Choosing and Narrowing a topic (102-106). 2. Reread chapter 21 in your textbook, “Writing Arguments,” to help you choose a sufficiently narrow topic for your argument essay (544-549) a. Your argument should make a claim. b. Your argument may also call for action. Examination, Lesson 7 143 3. Use one of the techniques from chapter 5 (freewriting, brainstorming, clustering, etc.) to develop your ideas for a topic. Remember: technology is too broad to write about in a short essay, so you need to focus on a specific facet of technology. 4. When you have a list of possible topics for your essay, choose one or two to explore in detail with more prewriting, such as freewriting or brainstorming (110-117). a. Write as much as possible based on what you know, think, and believe to be the case, or have heard about your topic. b. What do you think should be done to address the issues you’ve raised? 5. Draft a “tentative claim” (558-561) that represents your point of view on the topic. Because an argument essay also acknowledges the opposing point of view (552, 561- 562), draft a claim that represents the alternative point of view and brainstorm reasons and evidence you know, think, believe to be the case, or have heard about this side of the issue. Researching Your research is integral to your argument essay, however, it plays only a supporting role. At this point, only after you have gathered content in the prewriting process, should you begin the research process because 1. Your use of secondary sources should be limited 2. Secondary sources provide evidence to support your claims You shouldn’t allow secondary sources to take over your argument Use your prewriting to guide your research. Look for evidence that will help to confirm what you know, clarify point of view, or correct your mistaken beliefs. Go to the library. Your Penn Foster digital library provides resources that will help you to meet the research requirements for your essay, but keep in mind that research in a Examination, Lesson 7 library, even a digital one, isn’t like searching online. To learn more, visit the Penn Foster Library site on the Community here: http://community.pennfoster.edu/community/academic‐groups/digital‐ library‐information‐literacy. Keep careful notes on your sources and a working bibliography in order to avoid plagiarism. Organizing Use the graphic organizer on page 554 to organize your argument before you begin drafting. 1. Identify each reason clearly and provide related supporting evidence so that you can see your argument in outline form. 2. The outline will help you to identify the parts of your argument that do not fit your thesis statement, where you need more evidence, and where you can reorganize points to make the overall essay more persuasive. Drafting When you have completed your graphic organizer or outline, follow your plan to draft your essay. 1. Use topic sentences to state your reasons, develop the body of each paragraph logically using the evidence you found in your research 2. Review Chapter 24 on incorporating research into your essay. Be sure to a. introduce borrowed content b. properly punctuate quotations c. provide in-text, or parenthetical, citations for all secondary sources in MLA format d. Use MLA format for your list of works cited. 3. Use transitions to help guide you readers to your next point and to move smoothly throughout the argument. 144 Examination, Lesson 7 145 Revising 1. Review the Flowchart for Revising an Argument Essay (566-567) in your textbook. 2. Use the revision strategies to revise any parts of the essay where you answered “no.” 3. Be sure that you have edited and proofread (565-567) your entire essay. Consider using the Smarthinking tutoring service to review your essay. A tutor will provide feedback that you can use to revise your essay before you submit for a grade. To learn how to use the Smarthinking Writing Center, watch this video: http://community.pennfoster.edu/docs/DOC-62283. Submission Checklist n Argument essay, including list of works cited Submit Your Exam Your paper should be formatted as follows: n 1-inch margins on all sides n 12-point Times New Roman font n Double spacing 1. Use the header function in your word processing program to enter your personal identification and exam information: Student Name [tab] ID Number [tab] Exam Number Street Address City, State, Zip Email Address 2. Save your exam with the file name: IDNumber_ExamNumber_LastName_FirstName 3. Save your exam in either MS Word or Rich Text Format (.rtf). If an instructor cannot open the file you submit, it will be returned ungraded. 146 Examination, Lesson 7 4. When your exam has been evaluated and returned to you, you will be able to review the instructor’s comments by clicking on the View Project button next to the grade and downloading the Instructor Feedback File. If you have trouble viewing the file, please contact an instructor. Written examinations must be typed, double-spaced, using a standard 12-point font and left justification. Use 1-inch margins at the top and bottom and 1.25-inch margins for the left and right sides of the document. Each page must have a properly formatted header containing your name, student number, exam number, page number, mailing address, and email address (see page 4 for an example). Name each document using your student number first, then the six-digit lesson number, and finally your last name (for example, 23456789_500680 Doe). Save your work as a Microsoft Word document or as a Rich Text Format (.rtf) file. 147 Self-Check 1 1. Primary sources are original works. They include poems, novels, academic works, letters, diaries, films, and so forth. Secondary sources draw on, summarize, criticize, and/or interpret primary sources. For example, letters exchanged by James and Dolley Madison might be used as primary sources for a paper on James Madison. A secondary source for the same paper could be a biography of Madison. Secondary sources may save time, since the interpretations and summaries of original sources can give you an overview of a topic or of primary sources that may be difficult to comprehend. But the limitation of secondary sources is that they’re interpretations from a particular point of view. When time permits and they’re available, it’s best to consult primary sources and come to your own conclusion. 2. The MLA system requires parenthetical, in-text citations within the body of an essay or research paper for any direct quote, paraphrase, or summary of someone else’s ideas and words. For example, According to Gentry, there’s only one feasible approach to the summit of Mont Blanc (34). If an author’s name has been in use earlier: Some feel there’s only one feasible approach to the summit of Mont Blanc (Gentry 34). Also required is a works-cited page, where sources cited in the paper are listed by the last names of authors, arranged in alphabetical order. 3. The thesis statement Answers Answers 148 Self-Check Answers Self-Check 2 1. Biology: What is the biological process of species extinction? How often do species go extinct? What is the theory of natural selection? Geology: How has Earth’s natural environment changed over billions of years? What events or changes in the environment may have brought about massive extinction of species? History: What human historical trends have affected species habitats? Economy: What economic trends or forces may have encouraged the destruction of animal species? 2. Working thesis: Although many factors have contributed to the extinction of species over the millions of years of Earth’s history, in our era human activities are a major contributor to species extinction. Research questions: n What are the most common natural causes of species extinction? n What impacts have humans had on natural habitats? n Which are most harmful? n In what ways might these impacts have led to species extinction? n How deliberate or accidental were these impacts and can they be reversed? n How are humans impacted by species extinction? n What measures may be taken to protect endangered animal species? Self-Check Answers 149 Self-Check 3 1. A source is relevant if it can answer a research question while supporting the thesis. However, a relevant source may or may not be reliable. A source is reliable (or is more likely to be reliable) if it has a good reputation. Major daily newspapers, such as The Washington Post, or periodicals like Newsweek, may fall into this category. Scholarly works may be considered reliable if they’re from a peer-reviewed journal. An author with expertise in his or her field may be considered reliable. However, regardless of the source, you must be cautious if an author’s statements seem biased, incomplete, or inadequately supported by fact-based information. 2. 1. a. Textbook: Preliminary reading, not a research source b. Magazine article: Possible source of anecdotes and general background information c. Journal: Credible scholarly source 2. a. Newspaper article: Useful source of examples of first-hand experience, but not adequate for grasping the whole picture b. Journal article: Excellent scholarly source but may be too technical for audience c. Pamphlet: Useful government article 3. a. Article: Credible newspaper, but scan article to determine its relevance b. Website: Possible example, but credibility may be questionable c. Training manual: Possible example of one company’s policy 3. Does the site offer a bibliography or list of works as sources for the Internet article? Can the accuracy of the information be verified elsewhere? Am I accessing the complete document? (If not, establish that you can access the full text of the original.) 4. a 5. c 150 Self-Check Answers Self-Check 4 1. F 2. EO 3. O 4. O 5. F 6. F 7. O 8. FO (He did offer to buy Cuba, but whether he was greedy for influence is opinion.) 9. O 10. G—The statement doesn’t define “most people.” You could evaluate credible poll data on political attitudes to determine the validity of this assertion. 11. F—This is likely to be a fact, depending on its source. Standard references in astronomy could be consulted to verify the statement. 12. G—The term “many nations” is vague, as is “people.” National and international news sources would be needed to verify the truth and/or significance of this statement. 13. G—Africa’s natural resources don’t guarantee the continent a bright future. Many other issues affect the future development of each country in Africa. 14. F—This could be easily verified through the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency or local meteorologists. 15. Possible response: There are four identifiable assumptions in the first sentence: First, loving one’s fellow man isn’t the same thing as offering him homage simply due to his sex. Second, it isn’t clear that male dominance is inherent; it may be imposed and unjust. Third, homage is due another person (male or female) only to the extent that he or she is capable of reason. Implicit in the third assumption is the fourth assumption: the faculty of reason is a virtue deserving of recognition and credit. Self-Check Answers 151 In the second sentence it’s assumed that a person is accountable for any virtues gained through the exercise of reason. We’re responsible for our choices, reasoned or unreasoned. Further, it’s assumed that man’s capacity for reason is the foundation of our relationship to God. Self-Check 5 1. Will this article be descriptive or opinionated? How can a soldier get a “combat high”? What does Junger want us to think or feel about the “combat high” of the title? 2. Shoguns weren’t warlords; they replaced earlier warlords. The political role of the shogun may have been like that of a medieval European duke or perhaps a regional governor. 3. The title and role of shogun was inherited within a family line. 4. The shoguns used muskets from Portuguese traders to arm their soldiers. 5. Since travel beyond Japan was banned, contact with outsiders was greatly restricted. At the same time, since international trade was essentially cut off, the Japanese had to develop a self-sufficient society. Self-Check 6 1. a. Virginia, Dominican Republic, Switzerland, Egypt, India b. Newman second floor; BF173.F682 1961; James Strachey; New York: W. W. Norton, c1961 c. Psychoanalysis, Social Psychology, Civilization 152 Self-Check Answers Self-Check 7 1. False 2. True 3. False 4. True 5. False 6. False 7. False 8. Her father, Orazio Gentileschi 9. Susanna and the Elders 10. She was raped by her art teacher. 11. Judith Slaying Holofernes 12. Caravaggio 13. You checked the domain name for clues to its origin, including its extension (.edu, .org, etc.); you read carefully and critically to be sure the information was presented professionally and could be verified with other sources; you saw no indications that the information was merely opinion or unchecked facts; at least one of your sources was affiliated with a university, museum, or other reliable, academic resource. Self-Check 8 1. Wollstonecraft asserts that while she loves her fellow man, “his scepter, real or usurped” has no sway over her (12). 2. The author argues that people’s capacity to guide their lives through reason is among “obvious truths” (12). Self-Check Answers 153 3. It’s in that context that she deplores the narrow restrictions of women’s prescribed social roles, proclaiming that women are “decked out with artificial graces” designed to attract, manipulate, and “exercise a short-lived tyranny” over the men in her life (12). 4. Declaring that “Liberty is the mother of virtue,” Wollstonecraft argues that if “women [are], by their . . . constitution, slaves,” then they’re precluded from ever inhaling “the sharp invigorating air of freedom” (12). 5. Possible research questions: n What important events surrounded the period during which Winston Churchill was prime minister of Great Britain? n What was the content and context of the speech Churchill gave at Fulton, Missouri? n Why did Churchill’s “iron curtain” metaphor attract so much attention? n How did the American public describe or view the uncertainties of 1946? n What was the intent and nature of the Marshall Plan? Self-Check 9 1. 1. Second or third person would work if you incorporate personal observation or experience. 2. First person would allow you to convey your view of the accident. 3. Third person is the best choice for an academic paper. 2. Answers will vary depending on the chosen topic. Following is a sample answer. •Music sets a mood for social activities (it’s essential to dancing and sets the mood for parties and celebrations.) •Music is therapeutic (it can “bring out” autistic children, can calm colicky newborns, and is used in hospitals and nursing homes to create a calm atmosphere for healing, resting, and childbirth.) 154 Self-Check Answers •Music stimulates intelligence (it involves both sides of the brain—intelligence and creativity—enhances children’s attitudes in math and science and, in the case of Mozart’s music, has been used to improve students’ ability to remember facts before tests.) 3 a. The first one is the best choice. Your research may include observation of print, television, and radio advertisements, as well as research into various current marketing theories and strategies. Both types of research are “doable,” and the question is focused enough to yield a fully developed research paper. The second is very broad and not researchable—it’s unlikely that Coca-Cola personnel will reveal their future marketing plan. The third is researchable but too broad, as given. “The past” covers a lot of time, especially since the Coca-Cola Company was incorporated in 1919. b. The third is the best choice because it’s focused enough to allow you to research the question in some depth, yet broad enough to allow you to consider the various effects of deregulation on airline safety. You would probably use statistics such as those given in the second topic. The first is far too broad. c. The second is the best choice because the topic is broad enough to find more than just one or two sources, but it’s limited to one focus—the development of preschool language skills. The first is too broad, since it includes all skills (for example, language, social, small motor skills, large motor skills, and so on). You would have to gather too much diverse information. There may or may not be enough information for the third one. You would need to find more than just one or two studies if you chose it. If you find that there are enough sources dealing with vocabulary only, then you could choose to pursue it, though you would have to define “larger” and “vocabulary.” d. The first is far too narrow to develop into a research paper. You could answer this question in one sentence, and the question doesn’t allow you to develop your own thoughts about the topic. The second is too broad—you could write a book to discuss the importance of genetic Self-Check Answers 155 research in our lives. The third one is the best choice. You might be asking, “How can I research something whose effect hasn’t yet been felt?” You can logically posit what “might happen” in the future based on what “has happened” in the past. For example, your research may bring you to the major causes of obesity in the recent past (last 20 to 30 years) to establish a direct relationship between cause and treatment. Once you establish that direct cause-and-effect relationship, you can project similar types of relationships based on the new genetic research. e. The third is probably too narrow—it asks the researcher to identify just one major emotional reaction. At first glance, there’s not a lot of difference between the first two, but there is one major difference. The second asks for the variety of ways in which adult children of alcoholics interact with their alcoholic parents. Substantial research has identified many patterns of interaction, so this question may be too broad to deal with in the scope of one research paper. The first is the best choice. It narrows the scope by focusing on only the most positive ways of interaction. It also asks you to use the research to support your own informed judgment, which you provide eventually in the final research paper, thus creating interest as well as focus. 4. a. Researchable. There’s enough information available. You would have to sift through a lot of ideas, both pro and con, valid and invalid, to choose the best material for answering the research question and supporting your point of view. b. Somewhat researchable. There have been some recent experiments dealing with the physical (genetic) basis of sexual preference, but not enough research to support a credible view one way or the other. c. Not researchable as it’s worded, since it has no concrete meaning. What does “better” mean? Better in terms of nutrition? Better tasting? Better value? Fewer calories? Better for making your kids happy? This question could become researchable only if you define its terms. In addition, the topic isn’t one college professors would generally appreciate you choosing. 156 Self-Check Answers d. Researchable—see letter a. e. Researchable—see letter a. Self-Check 10 1. Thesis B is the best working thesis. It identifies specific causes of anorexia nervosa as well as the grouping and order in which the causes will be discussed in the research paper. Thesis A is weak because it’s too general. Thesis C is too narrow and factual. It could be proven with one or two statistics and doesn’t invite the writer’s own perspective on the topic. 2. Thesis C is the best of the three. It provides more focus than thesis B by identifying the particular areas of business practice to be researched. Thesis A isn’t a complete sentence and it offers no perspective on the topic. Even if used as a title, it’s poor because it doesn’t suggest a stand on an issue. Thesis B is researchable, but it will yield too much information to be manageable. Business practices can cover many things from marketing and customer service to management philosophies, styles of business correspondence, or the speed at which business is conducted. 3. Thesis B is the best choice because it focuses on two types of dilemmas raised by the appearance of Hamlet’s father’s ghost. Evidence from the play or from various critics’ interpretations of the play could be used to support this stance. Thesis A may not be researchable, since it would be difficult to find primary sources that prove Shakespeare’s intent (letters or diaries or notes for plays that Shakespeare wrote). If evidence from the play can be interpreted as Shakespeare’s intention for the audience to question the existence of the ghost, there’s other evidence in the play that contradicts that stance. Therefore, more irrefutable evidence (that a primary source would provide) would be necessary. In addition, the statement doesn’t seem related to the topic of the ghost’s importance. Thesis C is much too broad. It also indicates that the writer hasn’t bothered to make a decision regarding the ghost’s importance. The resulting paper will reflect that lack of interest, as well as lack of depth. A writer must be decisive and choose a clear focus appropriate for the purpose and audience. Self-Check Answers 4. a. Paraphrase: The Chihuahua can make a loyal and charming pet, but it has several qualities that make it a difficult dog to own. Even though the Chihuahua is a small dog, it can be willful and can cause damage because it likes to dig and chew. Chihuahua owners may find their puppies cute, but those who can’t handle the behavior of the grown dogs often abandon them at animal shelters. b. Summary: Because of its appearance, the Chihuahua’s difficulty as a pet is often underestimated. c. Personal Comment: Your answer should include some opinion about this type of dog and whether you learned something you didn’t know before, as well as questions like, How many Chihuahuas are left at animal shelters? Are they adopted quickly? Are adopted dogs likely to stay with their new owners? 5. a. Paraphrase: The British Empire brought its popular sports to much of the world. In the United States just before the Civil War, cricket was enjoyed more than any other team sport until, known by a number of names, baseball gained popularity. Alexander Cartwright formed the first baseball club in 1845. The club charged dues, developed rules, and inflicted penalties. By the time the Civil War ended, baseball replaced cricket as the most popular team sport. b. Summary: By the end of the Civil War, the American sport of baseball had replaced the British sport of cricket as America’s most popular team sport. c. Personal Comment: Your answer should include a comment about what surprised you in this information and a question you have about it. Self-Check 11 1. a 2. c 3. d 4. False 157 5. True 6. c 7. b Self-Check 12 1. The board members believed that the company should take action on current issues. 2. The city of San Francisco offers hiking, swimming, sailing, and fishing. 3. The members of the board reached a decision. 4. The employees are organized and knowledgeable. 5. Most employees feel more confident about their new jobs after completing their training. 6. Over the last 75 years, psychologists and educators interested in educational improvement have sought to use what is known about the process of learning to design better educational programs. 7. Removing the lid exposed the reactor core, allowing radioactive isotopes to escape. 8. The following hourly wage scales provide our estimated costs for the requested engineering services. 9. Janice identified the source of the faulty electrical connection. 10. Tom was uncertain about the wisdom of taking another part-time job so close to the final examinations. 11. The mayor and financiers doubted the legality and honesty of ACE Company’s dealings. 12. As expected, the shortage of campaign money proved to be the primary obstacle to Jane Doe’s bid for the state senate seat. 158 Self-Check Answers Self-Check 13 1. d 2. b 3. a 4. b 5. d 6. False 7. True 8. c Self-Check 14 1 1. Classification and division: Categorize goods that are made in America, such as automobiles, clothing, foods, and so on. Definition: What makes a product “American,” the materials, the labor, or both? Cause and effect: People may buy goods because of their quality or because doing so helps keep jobs in America and stimulates the economy. Argument: Is buying only American-made goods patriotic, or is it an outdated nationalistic approach to consumerism? 3. Classification and division: Classify and describe various approaches to community policing efforts in American cities, such as neighborhood-watch programs, Guardian Angels or similar groups, or connecting with police officers walking a neighborhood beat. Definition: What’s meant by “community policing”? Does it mean the community should participate or that a community should be well policed—or both? Cause and effect: High crime rates in some urban neighborhoods may generate intense community pressure to provide some form of community policing. Self-Check Answers 159 Argument: Given inadequate funding for law enforcement in many metropolitan areas, is community policing in urban neighborhoods effective, or are “community policing” proposals mostly political rhetoric? 2 a. Although it’s a direct, active opinion statement referring to the topic of adult illiteracy in America, there are a couple of problems with this as a thesis. First, calling adult illiteracy the “greatest threat” to America today is a very large claim. What about all the other serious problems confronting us? There’s no need to make such a large claim, which may only distract your reader with thoughts of other problems. Second, the focus of your draft isn’t the threat that illiteracy poses—you’ve got only about one page out of 14 about how widespread the problem is (maybe for your introduction), and nothing about its consequences (economic, social, political, and so on). Clearly, that’s not what your paper is about. (If it is what you want your paper to be about—or what your reader expects your paper to be about, you’ve got some major revising to do.) Instead, what your draft does discuss at length are causes and possible solutions, but your thesis doesn’t let your reader know that. b This sentence identifies the topic of the paper as adult illiteracy and indicates that there are many causes, which the reader will naturally expect you to explain (and you do, for about half of your draft). Then comes the “but,” a logical link to the opposite of “causes,” which would be “solutions” or something of the sort. Instead, the sentence continues “but it can be eliminated.” This wording seems to do the same job as “solutions”—in fact, asserting that adult illiteracy can actually be eliminated is a strong positive statement indeed. What’s more, just as your draft addresses the causes of illiteracy, it goes on to discuss its elimination by evaluating solutions and proposing one you feel would be effective. Since this sentence prepares your reader for exactly the paper you are delivering, it works as a thesis sentence for your paper. c. The topic is certainly clear here: adult illiteracy in America. Also, this sentence goes on to focus on how this problem may “be effectively addressed,” which is 160 Self-Check Answers one good way to prepare the reader for your evaluation of possible solutions and proposal of one you feel would be effective. However, you devote almost equal space to analyzing the causes of the problem and need to let your reader know that. There’s another problem with using this sentence as your thesis statement. It’s not a statement but a question, and that’s not what your reader ordinarily expects of a thesis. A question can be a very good way to “get the ball rolling” in an introduction, inviting your reader to get involved and think about the topic before you state your opinion in the thesis statement. On the other hand, questions merely hint at an opinion and might be misinterpreted. d. This sentence does speak about the topic of adult illiteracy in America. There are problems, however, with what it says about the topic and how it says it. “Subsuming a myriad of causal factors” is trying to impress the reader with its long words, unusual words, and technical-sounding words. This style makes the reader work hard to understand what the writer is saying (and usually indicates the writer has nothing to say or is afraid to express an opinion directly and clearly). “Causal factors” uses two words to say “causes.” And there are a “myriad” of them; “myriad” is a fine oldfashioned word that literally means “ten thousand,” but is used to mean “a very large number”—an exaggerated way of saying “many.” Evidently these many causes are “subsuming.” “Subsume” is a rather technical term meaning that one large category includes smaller ones. For example, “popcorn” and “potato chips” are both subsumed under the category of “snack foods.” The first part of the sentence therefore means that adult illiteracy includes many causes. But does it “include” many causes, or does it result from many causes? Saying that adult illiteracy “subsumes” many causes is quite fuzzy. The writer probably would never have written “Adult illiteracy includes many causes,” because in such familiar language the idea doesn’t really make sense, but the “fancy” language disguised that, at least from the writer. Self-Check Answers 161 Now we know that the first part of the sentence talks (not very clearly) about the causes of adult illiteracy—the six pages of your draft. The rest of the sentence, however, goes on to say that adult illiteracy “manifests itself throughout contemporary American society.” Your draft has only a page on how widespread adult illiteracy is (not even that it manifests itself throughout our society); what’s more, the second major part of your draft, evaluating solutions to the problem and proposing the best one, isn’t mentioned at all in this sentence. If you used this sentence as your thesis statement, your reader would expect a paper explaining the causes of adult illiteracy and describing how adult illiteracy can be found throughout American society. The paper you did write, about causes and solutions, would be unexpected and unappreciated. 3. The first statement is the best thesis, since it’s the most focused and specific. It focuses the argument on the hospital as an oligopoly (a certain type of economic structure) and also implies that the writer will explain how changed policy has influenced hospital economics. The other two are too broad and difficult to research. The second would require identifying particular Asian nations. In the third one, who are the citizens mentioned? All U.S. citizens? If so, is there valid evidence that represents all citizens’ concerns? 4. a. Not effective—there are too many points covered and the phrasing is awkward. How can the economy police anything? The focus should be on one point. Suggested revision: The American economy can be healthy only when jobs provide fair wages in correlation with the cost of living. b. Not effective—the statement makes an announcement. Suggested revision: Sex education in public schools can reduce the rate of teenage pregnancies. c. Effective—no revision needed. d. Not effective—the statement is general and lacks detail. Suggested revision: My years hiking the Appalachian Trail taught me to respect the natural world. 162 Self-Check Answers Self-Check 15 1. Among nocturnal hunters, bats are unique in their ability to sense objects and judge distances through built-in sonar. 2. Waiting for the crosstown bus at the corner of Elm and Main, my brother John stood holding his furled umbrella. 3. Seeing the taxi pull up outside, Miranda’s heart raced and tears streamed down her face as she ran to the door to embrace her husband. 4. The view from Walker Point embraces sky and rolling hills that fade like dreams as they recede into the hazy distance. 5. First, Second, and Third 6. The terms provide a logical connection for concepts in a series. 7. Both classical and operant conditioning focus on studying behavior, as opposed to subjective consciousness, changing behavior, and anticipating future behaviors. 8. When people master the basic concepts of classical conditioning and operant conditioning, they’ll understand how both schools of behaviorism view human behavior and conduct research. Self-Check 16 1. Lee expanded her introduction, added more specific details about Survivor in a new paragraph, cut out unnecessary details about other reality shows, added better illustrations of other reality TV shows, and expanded her conclusion. Her revisions made her views about the decline of reality TV more vivid for readers. 2. Lee added a second paragraph to add more details about why Survivor was popular. These details reinforce her thesis. Self-Check Answers 163 3. Lee’s revised introduction explains the effects of the first Survivor more vividly. The revised conclusion includes Lee’s thoughts about what she sees as the decline of this fad. 4. One possible paragraph: The first draft of paragraph 5 didn’t include the detail about Temptation Island. This particular detail illustrates how distasteful reality TV has become for Lee. Self-Check 17 1. A simile describes one thing as like another, with the word like or as linking the two. For example, “the fine lace was like a morning mist encircling her face.” By contrast, a metaphor lets some object, place, or thing stand for another object, place, or thing: “All the world’s a stage.” The metaphor compares “Hope” to “the thing with feathers” that stands for the human soul. 2. The shore exposed by receding surf could represent the world as it is, laid bare of pretense or illusion. 3. Personification is giving some kind of human characteristic to objects, ideas, or qualities. In “Dover Beach,” the contrast of hopeful (as opposed to menacing) perceptions of the ocean is comparing the cycle of the tides with the rise and fall of human experiences. 4. A dilapidated and abandoned house could stand for futility or the impermanence of life and possessions. It could stand for happier days now long gone or it could represent menace if terrible things are thought to have occurred there. If the house is associated with a person or family, it could represent the character of a person who once lived there, an empty heart, or a sense of abandonment. 5. Dickinson’s poem doesn’t deny the troubles that arise in life, but her “thing with feathers” remains optimistic. Since the little bird “sings its song with no words,” we know that hope isn’t a rational thing to be captured by thoughts or words. It exists beyond our understanding and control. 164 Self-Check Answers By contrast, “Dover Beach” suggests that human hearts and minds may have once been joined, although no such common sea now exists. Instead, the world is an illusion and the prospects for meaningful and fulfilling lives are a façade. Behind it lurks the menace of “ignorant armies” that shape the world behind our naïve perceptions. For Dickinson, the remedy for life’s perplexities lies beyond this life, as an unquenchable promise, and for Arnold, the only remedy is the fealty and devotion of lovers. Yet, while Dickinson’s hope will abide, it seems less certain that the devotion of lovers can withstand the tides of melancholy that underlie the human condition. 6. Title: Oil and Water: The Poetic Perceptions of Emily Dickinson and Matthew Arnold Thesis: The social worlds of Emily Dickinson and Matthew Arnold strongly informed the divergent themes of their poems “Hope” and “Dover Beach.” Title: Of Love and Hope: The Worldviews of Emily Dickinson and Matthew Arnold Thesis: Contrasting poems by Emily Dickinson and Matthew Arnold reveals radically different views of what people might call salvation. 7. “It” refers to the “little bird” that’s Dickinson’s metaphor for hope. The lines may mean that hope asks nothing of her when she suffers some extremity or that hope isn’t indifferent to our suffering. It asks nothing of us because it feeds itself and, thereby, asks not a “crumb” of us. Self-Check 18 1. The sentence poses an intriguing question that might engage readers and encourage readers to read further. 2. The Spanish conquest of Mexico succeeded in part because the Aztec people were convinced that Hernando Cortez was an incarnate god. 3. The conclusion reiterates the thesis, but in a widened context. It suggests the relevance of the thesis, since the conquest of Mexico foretold similar tragedies that continue to occur. Self-Check Answers 165 166 Self-Check Answers 4. b—Title “a” is vague and doesn’t capture the thesis. Also, many readers may not know what a “Grandee” is. Title “c” uses alliteration, which may be catchy and might engage a reader’s interest, but it’s also vague and doesn’t represent the content of the essay. Self-Check 19 1. c 2. Possible thesis: Unlike minerals, which are natural chemical compounds, rocks are categorized by the way in which they’re formed. 3. Classification: Minerals Divisions: Only two given—quartz and feldspars Classification: Rocks Divisions: Igneous, sedimentary, metamorphic Self-Check 20 1. Your definitions will vary, but the definition that applies to rocks should refer to a change in its constitution caused by pressure, heat, and water, making it more compact and more highly crystalline. 2. Answers will vary, though should include that meta- in this situation means “change” and that the root word morphë means “form.” This word combination is also seen in the Greek metamorphoun, to transform. Rocks are classified by the way they form (morphë). In the process of metamorphosis, the igneous or sedimentary forms actually change form; they transform into a different kind of rock. 3. Minerals, element class, igneous rocks, magma, sedimentary rocks, and metamorphic rocks 4. The passage classifies minerals by their chemical properties and rocks by how they were formed; each paragraph includes scientific names and terms that needed to be defined for the reader. Self-Check Answers Self-Check 21 1. The topic is telephones, comparing and contrasting pay phones and cell phones. In paragraphs 1 and 2, the subject could be summarized as “love and luck.” It describes how the author and his wife-to-be managed to communicate using a pay phone. The theme of paragraph 4 is the author’s relationship to pay phones throughout his life. The narrative shifts to cell phones in paragraph 7. He describes how cell phones are replacing pay phones as a new toy taking the place of an old, beat-up one. In paragraph 8, he comments on the manner in which people use cell phones and the cell phone’s relationship to the modern world. 2. Bases of comparison could be as follows: Advantage: development of social skills; disadvantage: academic performance of girls. Thesis 1: Integrating public school classrooms by gender develops important social skills for both boys and girls, since the sexes must interact on a daily basis. Thesis 2: Integrating public school classrooms by gender may be a disadvantage to girls since studies show that boys are more assertive and are called on by teachers more often. Self-Check 22 1. Southwestern cuisine is heavy on fried or grilled beef, while Mexican food is based on richly seasoned corn and tomato recipes. 2. Paragraph 1: Southwestern and Mexican cuisine overlap, but the differences are due to divergent cultural traditions. Paragraph 3: Corn meal was and is basic to Mexican cuisine, while Anglos made tortillas with wheat flour. Paragraph 4: Meat is included in both Southwestern and Mexican cuisine, but the meats are prepared differently and served in different ways in the two traditions. 167 3. Given today’s concern with obesity and excess fat in our diets, you could compare and contrast the cooking methods (fried, grilled, or slow-cooked), the amount of meat and fat in each style of cooking, and the use of vegetables and seasonings in each type of cooking. Self-Check 23 1. Zuger uses narrative of personal experience in paragraph 1, in which she describes a meeting with two interns. In paragraph 6 she describes feeling like she was in a “medieval morality play,” and in paragraph 12 she describes her inability to alter the perspectives of her interns. She uses description in paragraph 2, describing the attire of her two interns, the man and the woman. In paragraph 5 she describes the divergent attitudes of her two interns. The third type is argument, used in paragraphs 8–12: The author argues for a new, more humane and collaborative approach to medicine based on shortening interns’ work hours. 2. The author uses a point-by-point approach, which is effective because it allows her to make a series of observations and analyses of two interns and their two conflicting approaches to medicine. For example, she lines up a series of points to compare and contrast the two interns and another series of points that forcefully argue her reasons for shortening intern work hours. If she had used a subject-by-subject approach, it would have been more difficult to clearly compare and contrast the two individuals and move on to her argument about the hours interns are required to work. Self-Check 24 1. The story takes place in the late nineteenth century, during the time the author lived and wrote. From its title we can infer that the action took place in a single hour. 168 Self-Check Answers 2. The main character is Mrs. Louise Mallard. She is young and fair with “white slender hands”; also, she has heart disease. Her weak heart gives out, not at the shock of her husband’s death, but at the shock of seeing him alive. 3. Louise realizes that with her husband dead, she will be free, able to live for herself alone, a thought that fills her with joy. She changes from a somewhat passive, conventional wife to a woman who suddenly has dreams of her own. 4. The theme is of a woman’s self-discovery and her feelings when she experiences sudden independence—radical ideas in 1894. Self-Check 25 1. LeMieux finds himself homeless and penniless after a successful career as a sports writer, and White is arrested at his own apartment building without cause. Both men are polite and silently accept their mistreatment. LeMieux receives an unexpectedly large donation from a stranger and reacts with gratitude. Although White’s neighbors plead on his behalf, he spends five hours in jail and feels disillusioned. 2. Homelessness can happen to anyone, but minorities are subject to racism. White was reared to uphold solid standards of conduct and moral values but found those societal values weren’t practiced by the racist authorities he encountered. Self-Check 26 1. 1. Bregman emphasizes how, counter to popular belief, multitasking reduces productivity and effectiveness. 2. Opponents believe that multitasking enhances productivity and saves time, thereby increasing efficiency. 3. Bregman discovered such joys as engagement in the moment, making significant progress on big projects, and stress reduction. Self-Check Answers 169 4. Refocused: shifting attention back to the original task (paragraph 2); competent: good at doing something (5); disengaged: uninvolved (7); persistence: staying on task (7); meandering: wandering from topic to topic (7) 2. 1. Silverman sees multitasking as facilitating information transfer, saving time for others, and making stuck time more productive; he sees it as most important to managers (paragraph 4). 2. His analogy shows that multitasking makes tasks pile up like batch jobs in an old computer server. 3. He shows it’s human nature to multitask when no one is looking. 4. Discredited: proven wrong (1); unitasking: working on one task at a time (2); concurrently: at the same time (4); ponderable: worthy of consideration (4); lest: unless (4). 3. 2. a. Plain folks: I’m just a simple person; I’m just like you. b. Appeal to pity c. Ad hominem: This is an attack on the person, which may be unrelated to his actual stance on the issue of low wages and long hours. d. Appeal to false authority: Winfrey isn’t an authority on war, international relations, or government policy. Self-Check 27 1. 1. Limiting topics: The lottery in your home state; analysis of how the lottery is promoted in one state. Background: How many states have lotteries; how much money is raised; moral objections to state lotteries. 2. Limiting topics: Privacy in the workplace or on the Internet; security of Internet transactions and accounts; corporate access or personal information with individual’s knowledge. Background: Define the networks to be discussed; examples of privacy violations; relevant court cases. 170 Self-Check Answers 3. Limiting topics: A specific speech code on a specific campus; an incident or series of incidents that might justify speech codes. Background: Reasons for speech codes; purposes of typical speech codes; number of campuses that have enacted speech codes. 4. Limiting topics: Controversy over displaying a crèche on public property at Christmas; attempts to display symbols meaningful to different religions. Background: Interpretations of what constitutes a religious symbol, relevant U.S. Supreme Court rulings. 5. Limiting topics: Mandatory drug testing for members of particular professions (e.g., hospital workers, train engineers, police officers); mandatory testing of athletes for the use of steroids; mandatory testing for a specific drug. Background: Laws and company policies mandating drug testing; effects of drugs on job performance; relevant constitutional issues. 2. 1. a. While many parents approve of government control of pornography on the Internet, such controls may violate the First Amendment right to free speech. b. Pornography is so readily available to children on the Internet that the government must pass legislation to control it. 2. a. Limiting immigration may open up more jobs to unemployed citizens. b. While the government needs to control immigration, controls should be flexile so that people who can make valuable contributions to our society will be admitted. 3. a. Strict controls on campaign spending would very likely decrease the number of political advertisements on television. b. Laws limiting the amount of money a politician can raise and spend are violations of First Amendment rights and shouldn’t be enacted. Self-Check Answers 171 4. a. Computer literacy probably will be a mandatory requirement for most job applicants in the twentyfirst century; every college graduate should be required to demonstrate proficiency on the computer. b. College students, who will need to use computers in all fields and professions, should be required to demonstrate computer literacy in order to graduate. 5. a. Because they promote exercise and competitive spirit, sports are probably among the best activities children can engage in. b. Sports get inactive children away from the TV and into the fresh air; therefore, parents should encourage their children to engage in competitive sports. 3. 1. a. Urge readers to call school boards to insist on sex education classes. b. Contrast statistics on teen pregnancy for schools with sex education classes versus schools without such classes; cite expert opinion in favor of sex ed; narrate testimonials from teens who have benefited from sex education classes. c. Appeal to the common desire to protect teens but argue that they should be protected from pregnancy and sexual disease, not from information; cite persuasive facts and statistics. 2. a. Urge readers to write to companies that advertise during shows that portray violence unrealistically, arguing the need for action. b. Present examples of the real toll violence takes on victims and their families; contrast with unrealistic examples from TV shows; cite examples of “copy cat” crimes. c. Establish a common ground (the desire to reduce violent crime); provide some examples as in b, as well as the results of studies that show an increase in violence correlated with increased television viewing. 172 Self-Check Answers 3. a. Provide advice on ways to reduce the hours that some children spend on computers and to increase their involvement with social activities. b. Provide expert testimony on and examples of children who experience negative consequences from their exclusive involvement with computers. c. Concede that children need to be knowledgeable about using computers, but argue that social skills are needed as well. 4. 1. Possible opposing arguments: n Sex education may expose children to information parents may wish to withhold until the children are older. Response: Accommodate by proposing parental waivers or refute by arguing that students need to be informed about sex during adolescence when many begin to experiment with it. n Sex education sends the signal that sex is acceptable behavior for teens. Response: Acknowledge the position or accommodate it by noting that most teens experiment with sex and therefore should help protect themselves against disease and pregnancy by participating in the program. 2. Possible opposing arguments: n Portraying violence more realistically on television will desensitize people to it, not deter them from it. Response: Refute by noting that portraying the effects of actual violence has deterred crime and changed people’s minds, citing such examples as televised images of the Vietnam War and the Civil Rights movement. n Violent images have no effect on people who commit violence crimes. Response: Accommodate by noting that while realistic portrayals of violence won’t affect hardened criminals, they’ll probably keep some people from becoming criminals; or refute by citing studies that show a high crime rate among heavy television viewers. Self-Check Answers 173 3. Possible opposing arguments: n Children have many opportunities to interact with other people on the Internet. Response: Accommodate by pointing out that interaction with strangers on the Internet can be valuable but limited, or refute by noting that the uncertainty and possible dangers of interacting with strangers on the Internet. n Children who take advantage of all the computer has to offer learn more than children with a more active social life. Response: Acknowledge by conceding that children can learn much from playing educational computer games and surfing the Internet as well as from playing with other children. Self-Check 28 1. 1. Sturm’s thesis statement clearly states his position on the issue of explicit song lyrics. It suggests that Sturm will present negative effects as reasons to support his thesis. The thesis statement does not mention lack of government regulation or critiques of Sturm’s position. 3. Sturm doesn’t offer a precise definition of “explicit lyrics.” He does offer examples of content of explicit lyrics in paragraph 4. Readers may need a more precise definition to agree or disagree with the author’s position. 2. 1. Sturm regards explicit lyrics as harmful and detrimental to children. Possible words and phrases to highlight include hateful content (paragraph 3); repulsive ideas (4); and music that fuels negative and harmful thoughts (5). 2. Sturm uses both fact and opinion, but the essay relies heavily on opinion. Facts: 2. Opinions: 3–5. 3. Sturm’s audience is generally public, possibly parents of children under 16. 4. “Explicit music” is a euphemism for lyrics about sex or violence. 5. Sturm appeals to the need to protect the innocent and values of gentleness and social constraint. 3. Answers will vary. 174 Self-Check Answers 175 Appendix Appendix ADVANCED COMPOSITION COURSE RUBRIC Skill Realized Skill Developing Skill Emerging Skill Not Shown Thesis: Focus for Audience and Purpose The thesis establishes a clearly defined focus for the assigned topic, purpose, and audience. 10 The writer establishes a well-defined thesis for the assigned topic and purpose. The thesis is fresh and captivating for the audience. 9 The writer develops an adequate but standard thesis related to the topic, purpose and audience, or the writer provides an engaging thesis but it’s somewhat off the purpose. 8 The thesis addresses the topic but the focus tends to be a bit too broad or narrow for the audience and purpose, or it’s mechanical in stating a logical, expressive focus. 7.5 The thesis addresses the topic and attempts to define a focus, but it’s unclear and fuzzy for the audience. The thesis is more informational than critical. 7 The writer responds in broad, sweeping fashion to the topic with an unclear, shallow, or solely factual thesis that provides little direction for the audience in relation to the purpose. 3 If there’s a thesis, it’s barely related to the topic and doesn’t represent the central purpose of the writing. 0 The writing is completely unrelated to purpose, topic, and audience. (Continued) 176 Appendix ADVANCED COMPOSITION COURSE RUBRIC—Continued Skill Realized Skill Developing Skill Emerging Skill Not Shown Development and Structure of Ideas in Relation to Thesis Using applicable pattern(s) of devel- opment, the writer explores the rela- tionship between thesis, assertion, and evidence. The opening engages the reader with the thesis. The body paragraphs develop the thesis and the conclusion closes the essay with a sense of finality reinforcing the thesis. 25 Assertions stand out in appropriate analytic balance with the thesis, explanation, and evidence compe- tently exploring the implications of each assertion in relation to oth- ers. Supporting evidence provides convinc- ing details and examples. The writer appropriately incorporates strategies from pattern(s) of development within the required pattern. The reader enjoys the well- reasoned discussion. 23 The paper is mostly sym- metrical from introduction to body through conclusion. The writer attempts integrating other patterns within the primary one to logically present conclu- sions, but lacks finesse. Generally the assertions are thoughtfully explored in relation to the supporting evi- dence. The writer attempts freshness but sometimes at the expense of analytic purpose. 21 The paper pro- vides a rather mechanical beginning, middle, and end using the primary pattern of devel- opment along with a few, inef- fectual strategies from other pat- terns. Assertions are present but tend to blend with supporting details, particu- larly when going from general to specific. Some examples aren’t fully realized in relation to the thesis, though most are rele- vant. The writer may attempt original discus- sion but it lacks consistent rational depth. 19 The writer attempts to provide a beginning, middle and end, but with an incomplete or illogical purpose. The writer’s attempt to use the primary pattern of development lacks polish and insight. Some specific details are given but with ordinary analy- sis in an awkward or imprecise balance, some- times due to irrelevant content. The thinking is common to most people and lacks depth. 17 The reader isn’t quite sure where the discussion begins, expands, and closes. Everything seems to have the same level of importance. There are few identifiable assertions, while the supporting examples lack sufficient, rele- vant details or analysis. The writer includes some accurate but also unneeded and unrelated information, often repeating similar ideas and making inappropriate conclusions. The reader is left with many questions. 10 The writer uses sketchy and irrelevant and/or inaccu- rate details with vague examples that seem unrelated to the purpose. The writer often misinter- prets or doesn’t discuss information in relation to the thesis. The writing rambles with no clear pattern or strategies used to achieve focus. 0 Unable to discern purposeful thought or feeling completely disengaged, the reader stops partway through the essay. What information is included is listed in unrelated, inaccurate fashion to the thesis. The information fails to establish a clearly defined focus for the assigned topic, purpose, and audience. (Continued) Appendix 177 ADVANCED COMPOSITION COURSE RUBRIC—Continued Skill Realized Skill Developing Skill Emerging Skill Not Shown Incorporation of Source Material Paraphrases, summaries, and direct quotations are appropriately integrated with the writer’s style for the purpose and audience. Sources are rel- evant and reliable. 10 Relevant, reliable source material is integrated logically and perceptively, particularly in differentiated use of para- phrase, summary, and quote. The writer provides a competent blend, effectively interpreting and applying valid source information accurately and elegantly. 9 Source use tends toward imbalance, with some overuse of paraphrase or one source in favor of another. The writer tends to use para- phrase or quotes to provide rather basic factual infor- mation. The writer inter- prets sources accurately but unevenly. Sources are mostly rele- vant and reliable. Integration with style is clearly attempted but with inconsistent results. 8 The writer clearly favors one source but without clear reasoning for that choice. The writer attempts to use paraphrase, summary, or direct quote appropriately. Most connec- tions seem logical but the writer often doesn’t make the connections plain or does so with some awk- wardness. For the most part, the writer dif- ferentiates among fact, hearsay, and opinion. Source choices are generally rele- vant but may lack reliability. 7.5 The writer consistently fails to clearly differentiate among sources, sometimes applying opin- ion as fact (or vice versa). Much source material seems tacked into place instead of flowing natu- rally with the analysis. Some choices of information show lack of understanding about mate- rial. Most of the sources are relevant or reliable but some are questionable and their use interferes with meaning. 7 For most of the essay, the reader has only a vague idea of what sources are being used with the information stiffly or illogically and unclearly presented. The sources are outdated or are too general for the purpose. Paraphrasing, summarizing, and direct quotations are used regardless of importance of information, with only minor differ- entiation between fact and opinion. 3 The writer does little to differentiate among fact, hearsay, and opinion. The writer does little to iden- tify source material and regularly applies it inconsis- tently, illogically, or inaccurately. 0 Paraphrases and sum- maries are primarily plagiarized because of sentence structure and word choice. (Continued) 178 Appendix ADVANCED COMPOSITION COURSE RUBRIC—Continued Skill Realized Skill Developing Skill Emerging Skill Not Shown Overall Organization of Writing Transitional words and connective phrasing guide the reader through the relationships between ideas. Each paragraph contains one idea that supports the thesis. The supporting sen- tences connect to/develop the paragraph’s focus. 15 The essay progresses with logical, efficient para- graph structure and sequencing so that details fit naturally where placed. Transitions and connective phrasing weave the parts into a cohesive, meaningful whole. 14 Overall struc- ture is logical and strong, but within a few para- graphs a supporting sentence may not be clearly connected to related sentences. Writer’s attempt toward more complex transitions or connective phrasing may not be effective but doesn’t negate meaning. 13 Body para- graphs tend to be weakly connected to the thesis, but overall sequencing is clear enough to move the reader from point to point. A few para- graphs may run together or contain infor- mation in the wrong place, but the neces- sary elements are present and the errors mini- mally interfere with the meaning. 12 Paragraphs are inconsis- tent in placement, development, and connec- tion to the purpose with mechanical transitions or connective phrasing that only minimally helps logical connections between ideas. 11 Most para- graphs contain more than one main idea with confusing or incomplete logical progression. The essay contains hard-to- follow leaps from point to point. If used, transitions frequently detract from or hide logical relationships. 6 Ideas and details are strung together ran- domly with inaccurate transitions and little or no connective wording. Paragraphing is missing or is too fre- quent. Paragraphs are mostly unfocused and disor- ganized. 0 The paper shows no logical paragraph- ing. Transition use isn’t present or is illogical and imma- terial to the discussion. (Continued) Appendix 179 ADVANCED COMPOSITION COURSE RUBRIC—Continued Skill Realized Skill Developing Skill Emerging Skill Not Shown Word Choice and Presentation Style The writer shows a consistent point of view, captivat- ing the reader with skillful, pre- cise language for the purpose and audience. The essay is graceful and easy to read aloud with a natural, pleasant rhythm through varied sentence length and structures. 15 The writer con- veys meaning in an active, pur- poseful, and convincing tone. With little jargon and no slang, words are accu- rate and lively, appealing to the audience. Language is mostly powerful with well-chosen, creative word combinations. Sentence struc- tures contribute to logic and clarity. 14 The essay tends to be overly formal but is primarily in the active voice. Writer deliberately uses com- pelling, energetic words. A few choices may not be best for the context but don’t diminish understanding. The choice of some sentence structures creates minor lapses from a natural rhythm but without detracting from the meaning. Although structures tend toward coordi- nation, the writer success- fully attempts complex ones. 13 The writer’s voice is uneven, some- times strong and other times ten- tative or general. The point of view shifts in spots between keeping formal distance and lapsing into a conversational tone too informal for the audience/ purpose. Language is func- tional, perhaps redundant, with slips into cliché but the writer gets the message across accurately. The sentence structure is more mechanical than refined with some minor choppy and awkward passages caused by overuse of coordinating sentences. 12 Some shifts in point of view don’t interfere with meaning but cause the reader to pause. Familiar words communicate but don’t distin- guish the writing. Less common words tend to be inac- curately applied. The writer may use synonyms to avoid redun- dancy but choices don’t add precision. The sentence structures show minimal variety, and overuse of simple ones detracts from meaning. 11 The writer uses flat, lifeless, and mechanical writing with obvious shifts in point of view interfering with meaning. Word choices are frequently inaccurate and inappropriate to purpose and audience. Range of vocabulary is limited, often relying on trendy and/or worn-out words. Most sentence struc- tures are bulky, monotonous, and/or awk- ward, making it diffi- cult but not impossible to understand. 6 The writer lapses into biased, ungrounded emotion with no consistent point of view. Repetition, clichés, and jargon distract the reader and convey mini- mal meaning. Words are used incor- rectly in several places, making the message difficult to understand. Sentences sound unnatural with incorrect, irregular, and awkward word patterns forc- ing stops because the meaning is obscured. 0 The writer haphazardly fills the paper with words in mostly meaningless structures and voice. (Continued) 180 Appendix ADVANCED COMPOSITION COURSE RUBRIC—Continued Skill Realized Skill Developing Skill Emerging Skill Not Shown MLA Citation Using the MLA citation style, the writer accurately and correctly documents the required num- ber of sources. 10 The writer uses the required number and type of sources. MLA documentation shows mastery of citation style with no or very minor errors in punctuation. 9 There are minor incon- sistencies in citing source material with little devia- tion from required MLA style. One source may not have been clearly cited in the paper. 8 The writer deviates in repeated but minor fashion from MLA style. Either one too many or too few sources may be cited. 7.5 Different source material is frequently clumped together with minimal identification. Citation use may not match required num- ber or in-text citations and works cited don’t fully match. 7 Frequent minor and several major errors are made in the MLA docu- mentation. Source infor- mation for in-text cita- tions doesn’t match works cited even if the correct number of sources is used. 3 Problems abound with the use of source mate- rial. Where present, the MLA docu- mentation is unclearly and inaccurately applied. 0 No citation is provided for source material used. (Continued) Appendix 181 ADVANCED COMPOSITION COURSE RUBRIC—Continued Skill Realized Skill Developing Skill Emerging Skill Not Shown Conventions According to standard writ- ten American English, the writer correctly applies spelling, punctuation (including sentence struc- ture), and grammar, so the choices make the writ- ing professional and easy to understand. The writing meets the required length and overall submission for- mat for the assignment. 15 The writer demonstrates a strong grasp of conventions, using them effectively to enhance read- ability with no or only infre- quent, minor errors. Writer is meticulous about visual presentation. 14 The essay has hardly any gram- matical distractions, maintaining overall clarity and handling most conven- tions with finesse. The paper slightly deviates from required format or length. 13 The writer shows reason- able control over a limited range of con- ventions with patterns of minor gram- matical and mechanical errors. While mildly distract- ing, they don’t impede under- standing. The essay may be outside the required word range. Format may provide basic informa- tion but detracts from the text. 12 Several different grammatical and mechani- cal errors throughout the essay sometimes interferes with the message. The essay is noticeably outside the length and some part of required information is missing. The format may detract from message. 11 Multiple errors in spelling, punctuation, usage, gram- mar, and capitalization distract and confuse read- ers. Visual format is faulty. The piece of writing is obviously too short or too long. 6 Pervasive errors nega- tively impact understand- ing. The reader has to read once to decode and again to make mean- ing. Format/ length are incorrect in several ways. 0 The writer makes errors even in the most basic con- ventions, length, and format.