Leadership and Management Core Skills

145 views 8:20 am 0 Comments March 31, 2023

1 | P a g e
v1.2.0 (0821)
© Copyright ISMI Certification Ltd. No unauthorised sharing, copying, reuse in whole or in part,

uploading or webhosting permitted.
Telephone:
Fax:
+44 207 206 1207
+44 1386 66 11 70

Unit 4 – Leadership and Management Core Skills
The International Security Management Institute
Poplar Cottage, 6 Village Street
Harvington, Evesham
Worcestershire, WR11 8NQ
United Kingdom
Email: [email protected]
Certified Security Management Professional
Level 6 Organisation Diploma (CSMP)
Unit 4
Leadership and Management
Core Skills
ISMI
.org.uk
The International Security
Management Institute

2 | P a g e
v1.2.0 (0821)
© Copyright ISMI Certification Ltd. No unauthorised sharing, copying, reuse in whole or in part,
uploading or webhosting permitted.
Unit 4 – Leadership and Management Core Skills
About ISMI
The International Security Management Institute (ISMI) provides low-cost, high-quality distancelearning education and certification in security management. Programmes are accredited by lead
bodies.
ISMI is managed by a core team of professional security management education specialists, and is
supported by a large team of practitioners who make up the Professional Assessment Board (PAB).
Members of the PAB are full-time security managers and consultants, which ensures that course
materials remain up to date and relevant.
The Certified Security Management Professional (CSMP) Level 6 Organisation Diploma is the flagship
of ISMI. The designation CSMP ensures that the holder has evidenced through rigorous continued
assessment the ability to manage and advise on security management at an advanced level.
Copyright
This work is protected under international copyright law. Unauthorised use, copying, sale or
sharing of this document is strictly forbidden without the express permission of the
International Security Management Institute (ISMI) and ISMI Certification Ltd. In the event
of breach of these terms, ISMI Certification Ltd reserves the right to take legal action to seek
damages against parties involved.

3 | P a g e
v1.2.0 (0821)
© Copyright ISMI Certification Ltd. No unauthorised sharing, copying, reuse in whole or in part,
uploading or webhosting permitted.
Unit 4 – Leadership and Management Core Skills
About the CSMP Certification
The Certified Security Management Professional (CSMP) is a 12-unit programme designed to take you
progressively through the essentials of managing security in a corporate environment. Upon
completion of each unit you will be required to submit a short assignment, based on the questions
that follow each unit.
The programme is designed to be undertaken one unit each study month (4 weeks) in the following
order:
Unit 1: Security Risk Analysis
Unit 2: Crime Prevention
Unit 3: Managing the Security Function
Unit 4: Leadership and Management Core Skills
Unit 5: Security Design, Evaluation and Surveying
Unit 6: Perimeter Protection
Unit 7: Protecting Buildings
Unit 8: Access Management
Unit 9: Video Surveillance (CCTV)
Unit 10: Facility Counterterrorism
Unit 11: Protection of Information
Unit 12: Protection of at-Risk Personnel
The CSMP certification is designed for existing security managers seeking to build on and formalise
their professional knowledge and also for those who aspire to becoming security management
professionals.
The units are set out in such a way as to be conducive to self-study.

4 | P a g e
v1.2.0 (0821)
© Copyright ISMI Certification Ltd. No unauthorised sharing, copying, reuse in whole or in part,
uploading or webhosting permitted.
Unit 4 – Leadership and Management Core Skills
CSMP Programme Study Instructions
The following study instructions are binding under the Study Programme Terms and Conditions and
form part of the contract between ISMI Certification Ltd and the learner.
1.
Coaching and Cohorts – You are allocated to a cohort of students to complete your CSMP
under the guidance of a coach. The programme will take twelve months to complete. You
will have continuous access to your coach in case you need further explanation of any of the
Unit text or concepts.
2.
The Monthly Unit – Each month you will receive, as a pdf document emailed to the address
you provide at the time of registration, a detailed unit comprising the reading text and
assignment instructions for that month. Each monthly unit addresses a different security
management subject. You will be assessed at the end of each month on the answers you
submit to each assignment. You are to first read the notes in detail, then submit written
answers to the assignment tasks in accordance with the specific task instructions.
3.
The Monthly Written Assignment – Upon completion of the reading task, you are then
required to undertake specific written tasks, which you will submit for assessment by the
respective deadline. There will be no submission reminder sent. You should always ask for a
read receipt for your submission. If you miss the deadline this will be regarded as a unit fail.
4.
The Monthly Written Assignment: Your Undertaking – As a condition of participating in this
programme, you undertake to read the notes in detail before completing the assignment
tasks. Only by a thorough first reading of the text can a complete assignment task answer be
produced. If you try to shortcut and go straight to the assignment tasks and then try to find
the answers in the text you will fail to achieve the objectives of the programme and your
answers will likely fail to reach the required standard for a pass. Moreover, this is a
contravention of the conditions of the award, and may lead to unsatisfactory answers that
result in a fail grade. If the answers consistently indicate that you are failing to read the text
before completing the assignment tasks ISMI may write advising you that failure to read the
unit is a contravention of the Study Programme Instructions and you may be in violation of
the conditions of the award.
5.
The Monthly Written Assignment: Achieving a Pass Grade – You must complete EVERY task
correctly in each assignment to the specified minimum word count. Incomplete submissions
will result in a fail grade. ISMI will be looking for a high level of detail in your answer,
demonstrating a clear understanding of the subject. Marking criteria is strict, and you will be
required to evidence competent unit application in answers to every question. Submissions

5 | P a g e
v1.2.0 (0821)
© Copyright ISMI Certification Ltd. No unauthorised sharing, copying, reuse in whole or in part,
uploading or webhosting permitted.
Unit 4 – Leadership and Management Core Skills
that fail to do this will be marked as a referral, and you will be given the opportunity to
resubmit once.
6.
The Monthly Written Assignment: Failure to Pass – If you fail to complete the tasks to pass
standard you will not be eligible for the award. If, for reasons beyond your control, you are
unable to maintain the pace of the programme, you will be given one chance to defer to a
place on the next available programme in accordance with the published Study Programme
Terms and Conditions.
7.
Academic Discipline and Misconduct – The work you submit must be your own. If you copy a
submission or collude with another candidate to produce identical or partially identical
submissions, this will be regarded as academic misconduct with fraudulent intent to achieve
the CSMP and you will be removed from the programme. If company sponsored, your
company may be informed. Under such circumstances no refund is available.
8.
Cancellation – Once you have begun the programme no refund is available (subject to your
statutory rights under English Law – see Study Programme Terms and Conditions) and it is
your personal responsibility to ensure that you submit the tasks by their respective deadlines.
9.
Submission of Assignments – Your submissions should always be submitted by email to
[email protected] Due to the vagaries of email communication you should always ask
for a receipt with each submission. If you do not receive a receipt, you should call ISMI to
ensure your submission has been received. If you do not do this ISMI Certification Ltd cannot
be held liable for submissions you may have sent but which have not been received.
10.
The ISMI Security Management Body of Knowledge – Over the period of the study year, the
monthly units will build up into the ISMI Security Management Body of Knowledge – over 800
pages of best practice in security management with a quick reference guide. You will also
have access to additional web-based resources.

6 | P a g e
v1.2.0 (0821)
© Copyright ISMI Certification Ltd. No unauthorised sharing, copying, reuse in whole or in part,
uploading or webhosting permitted.
Unit 4 – Leadership and Management Core Skills
Unit 4 – Contents
About this Unit…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………9
Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….10
PART I – MANAGING A FUNCTION
Overview …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………11
Two Theoretical Approaches to Management ……………………………………………………………………..12
Relationship Building and Emotional Intelligence …………………………………………………………………13
Managing Change …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….14
– Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………………………..14
– The impact of change…………………………………………………………………………………………15
– The Kubler-Ross change curve …………………………………………………………………………….16
– Kotter’s change management steps …………………………………………………………………….17
Project Management ………………………………………………………………………………………………………..19
– Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………………………..19
– Project variables and team composition ………………………………………………………………18
– Project phases …………………………………………………………………………………………………..20
Business Finance and the Cost of Security……………………………………………………………………………23
– Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………………………..23
– How expensive is your salary to the organisation?…………………………………………………23
– How much security can a business afford?……………………………………………………………24
– The security element in overall business costs………………………………………………………25
– Security costs and break-even analysis…………………………………………………………………26
– Capital and operating expenditure ………………………………………………………………………28
– Zero-based budgeting ………………………………………………………………………………………..28
– The major accounting documents of business ………………………………………………………29
PART II – MANAGING YOURSELF
Personal Professional Development……………………………………………………………………………………31
– Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………………………..31
– The importance of developing good generic management skills ……………………………..31

7 | P a g e
v1.2.0 (0821)
© Copyright ISMI Certification Ltd. No unauthorised sharing, copying, reuse in whole or in part,
uploading or webhosting permitted.
Unit 4 – Leadership and Management Core Skills
– Specific security management professional development options…………………………..33
Decision Making……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….34
– Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………………………..34
– Ten points to consider when making decisions ……………………………………………………..35
– Decision trees……………………………………………………………………………………………………37
PART III – MANAGING PEOPLE
Moving from Traditional to Contemporary Management………………………………………………………38
– FW Taylor and scientific management………………………………………………………………….38
– Classical management structures ………………………………………………………………………..38
– Leadership-based management…………………………………………………………………………..39
– Kaizen and contemporary management……………………………………………………………….40
Administrative Management of People – Appraising……………………………………………………………..41
– Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………………………..41
– Benefits of appraising…………………………………………………………………………………………41
– Preparing for appraisals ……………………………………………………………………………………..42
– The appraisal interview………………………………………………………………………………………43
Administrative Management of People – Promoting……………………………………………………………..44
– Promotion as a motivator …………………………………………………………………………………..44
– Promoting from outside or from within?………………………………………………………………44
– Outdated approaches to promotion…………………………………………………………………….44
– Before selecting candidates for promotion …………………………………………………………..45
– Selecting candidates for promotion……………………………………………………………………..46
Administrative Management of People – Training…………………………………………………………………47
– The benefits of training………………………………………………………………………………………47
– Types of training………………………………………………………………………………………………..48
– Planning considerations ……………………………………………………………………………………..48
Administrative Management of People – Disciplining ……………………………………………………………50
– Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………………………..50
– Possible causes of indiscipline …………………………………………………………………………….50

8 | P a g e
v1.2.0 (0821)
© Copyright ISMI Certification Ltd. No unauthorised sharing, copying, reuse in whole or in part,
uploading or webhosting permitted.
Unit 4 – Leadership and Management Core Skills
– Types of discipline ……………………………………………………………………………………………..51
– Discipline and the level of proof ………………………………………………………………………….52
– Guidelines for good discipline……………………………………………………………………………..52
– Common discipline problems involving security officers…………………………………………54
Developing Leadership Awareness ……………………………………………………………………………………..55
– Where do leaders come from? ……………………………………………………………………………55
– Don’t try to put square pegs into round holes – Managers versus leaders ……………….56
– Fayol’s advice to managers aspiring to be leaders …………………………………………………58
– Transformational leadership……………………………………………………………………………….58
Establishing Yourself as a Role Model …………………………………………………………………………………60
Managing Teams and Teamwork………………………………………………………………………………………..62
– Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………………………..62
– The factors that characterise teams …………………………………………………………………….62
– Team composition……………………………………………………………………………………………..63
– Team effectiveness model ………………………………………………………………………………….63
– Team leadership………………………………………………………………………………………………..64
– The stages of team evolution………………………………………………………………………………64
– The two dimensions of team needs……………………………………………………………………..65
– Team leader qualities…………………………………………………………………………………………66
Motivating……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….68
– Introduction – Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation……………………………………………………68
– Mayo and the Hawthorne Effect………………………………………………………………………….68
– Maslow’s hierarchy of needs ………………………………………………………………………………69
– Herzberg’s two-dimensional theory of motivation…………………………………………………70
– Unity of command and chain of command……………………………………………………………70
– In summary……………………………………………………………………………………………………….71
Delegating ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….72
– Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………………………..72
– Delegating responsibility, authority and accountability ………………………………………….72
– Advice to heed when delegating………………………………………………………………………….73
Bibliography and References for Additional Study………………………………………………………………..74

9 | P a g e
v1.2.0 (0821)
© Copyright ISMI Certification Ltd. No unauthorised sharing, copying, reuse in whole or in part,
uploading or webhosting permitted.
Unit 4 – Leadership and Management Core Skills
About this Unit
Unit Purpose
Unit 4 aims to help you develop your skills to become a more effective leader and manager of people.
Building on the functional management aspects of Unit 3, Unit 4 places much emphasis on team
leadership, and the workbook provides you with context-based problems to solve.
Unit Outcomes and Assessment Criteria

Unit Outcomes Assessment Criteria
4.1 Be able to apply standard generic
management practices to the security
management programme.
a. Critically evaluate traditional and
modern approaches to management.
b. Develop good practice for the
management of security projects.
c. Devise methods to demonstrate return
on security investment.
4.2 Be able to lead change. a. Critically evaluate standard approaches
to change management.
b. Hypothesise circumstances where
resistance to change is likely.
4.3 Be able to develop leadership best
practice.
a. Synthesise standard approaches to
leadership to make applicable to
security management.
b. Synthesise innovative ways to develop
teamwork.
c. Diagnose, through case study,
shortcomings in application of
motivation and leadership.

The assessment questions in the Unit Workbook will be based directly on the above assessment
criteria.

10 | P a g e
v1.2.0 (0821)
© Copyright ISMI Certification Ltd. No unauthorised sharing, copying, reuse in whole or in part,
uploading or webhosting permitted.
Unit 4 – Leadership and Management Core Skills
Introduction
As a security manager, you must strive to continually
develop your generic management and leadership
skills. There are two primary reasons for this. First, the
most effective security programmes are less about
physical defences and more about negotiating,
influencing, persuading and leading. Therefore, to be
successful a security manager must have highly
developed interpersonal skills. Second, a security manager should be seen to be an effective member
of business management, one of a team of senior managers, each of whom has an individual area of
specialism. At business management level the emphasis will be on understanding the business and
the factors that influence the bottom line, rather than fear, uncertainty and doubt (FUD) and alarming
threat assessments. A security manager who positions himself as primarily a security specialist and
who appears to place himself or herself outside the business management team will be less successful
than one who is fully integrated into a business resilience function.
The purpose of this module is to share best practice in generic management and leadership skills to
enable you to make a greater impact as both a business manager and a leader of people. You
doubtless consider yourself an effective manager and leader already – most managers do – but can
you think of people for whom you have worked whom you considered to be lacking in leadership
skills? Do you think they viewed themselves as ineffective or effective?
This module is broken down into three essential areas of management:
Part I – Managing a Function;
Part II – Managing Yourself; Part III – Managing People. Managing People
is further broken down into
Administrative Management and Leadership. Leadership focusses on leadership of people, rather
than entrepreneurial leadership, which is different and beyond the scope of this module.
A truism about a career in security management is that many of us find ourselves in security
management almost by default, after a previous career. Few of us aspired to becoming security
managers in earlier life and there are extremely few entry-level degrees in security management. It is
rare for somebody to enter security management direct from university. In relation to other business
professions, this makes security management unique. To be successful in a business setting,
therefore, many of us have to adjust quite significantly, as a large number of us have come from a
more rigid, perhaps police or military background. The purpose of this module is to present tools,
templates and methodologies to help you in becoming more effective as both a manager of a business
function and a leader of people, to help you better demonstrate your abilities, to provide you with
methodologies to benchmark your success, and, perhaps, to help you get more satisfaction out of your
role.
If you are working for a large multinational
company the mantra:
“You are a business manager (first) with a
security specialism (second)

may well be familiar to you. Think about
what this means.

11 | P a g e
v1.2.0 (0821)
© Copyright ISMI Certification Ltd. No unauthorised sharing, copying, reuse in whole or in part,
uploading or webhosting permitted.
Unit 4 – Leadership and Management Core Skills
PART I – MANAGING A FUNCTION
Overview
Management in an organisation is perhaps more difficult now than at any time previously. A key
reason for this is change. Change is a core characteristic of many of the world’s most successful
companies. Heller (2002) observes that organisations have traditionally been seen as simple, rigid,
pyramid structures, with well-defined boundaries between their “inside” and “outside” worlds. Such
thinking is now redundant. A brief overview of change management will be presented later in this
module.
Management in a successful enterprise requires balancing many different considerations, for
example, at the strategic level:
The product or output of the organisation must meet, and be adaptable to, the evolving
expectations of the consumer. Customers expect innovation, less cost, more functionality,
faster speed and greater quality.
The organisation’s intrinsic mission and values will be influenced by what it desires to be its
public image and reputation. This then becomes the foundation for the organisational
culture. Cultures vary from one organisation to another.
The organisation’s strategic vision and goals and objectives will be geared to deliver growth.
Sometimes this may be all-consuming and cause overwhelming pressure and stress.
Major external change drivers will have increasing impact. These include societal,
technological, economic and political/legislative (STEP) changes. There are turbulent,
complex and fast-changing global considerations.
Related to the above, there will be a continuing need to evolve, resize, restructure,
outsource, offshore, reengineer etc. Many factors will drive this, including changes in the
global economic situation.
And at the operational level:
The organisation must be satisfied that employees are performing to their best and the
organisation is succeeding in achieving its goals. Motivation, pride and job satisfaction are
the keys to good performance.
The needs of employees, both individual and team, should be met. Employees should get a
sense of self-worth from their work. They must be well led.
Your personal and professional needs as a manager should be met if you are going to
perform to the best of your ability. To be successful in employment, your career should be
compatible with your unique personality, interests, skills, abilities and ambitions.

12 | P a g e
v1.2.0 (0821)
© Copyright ISMI Certification Ltd. No unauthorised sharing, copying, reuse in whole or in part,
uploading or webhosting permitted.
Unit 4 – Leadership and Management Core Skills
Two Theoretical Approaches to Management
One of the earliest contemporary writers on organisational management was Henri Fayol (1949), who
divided management into five task areas:
Commanding is an outdated concept in business and has been supplanted by leadership. Leadership
by its nature is more affective in that it is about generating followership, inspiring, motivating,
energising or convincing others that the direction or goal identified is worthwhile and appropriately
demanding of their commitment (Spurgeon, 2007). The differences between management and
leadership are discussed in greater depth later in this module.
Mintzberg (1983) was not convinced that the five activities identified by Fayol were accurate, and
produced what many regard as a better model:

Interpersonal Figurehead
Leader
Liaison
Provide information
Informational Monitor
Disseminator
Spokesperson
Process information
Decisional Entrepreneur
Disturbance Handler
Resource Allocator
Negotiator
Use information

Mintzberg’s idea is that these aspects will come together as an “integrated whole”, reflecting the
manager’s competencies associated with the roles. You can read more about the roles at
http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/management-roles.htm
Commanding
Planning
Coordinating Controlling
Organising
Feedback
13 | P a g e
v1.2.0 (0821)
© Copyright ISMI Certification Ltd. No unauthorised sharing, copying, reuse in whole or in part,
uploading or webhosting permitted.
Unit 4 – Leadership and Management Core Skills
Relationship Building and Emotional Intelligence
Neither Fayol nor Mintzberg specifically identified the importance of relationships in management.
Relationship building across the business is crucially important to the security manager. Good
relationships will help portray you as a business enabler and not a business restrictor. Security
shouldn’t be viewed as a narrow discrete activity with its main focus around guarding and barriers. It
is a culture which needs to be shared and embedded into the business, just like health and safety,
business continuity and corporate social responsibility. Therefore, leadership of the security function
requires special skills that go beyond leadership of the immediate team. In fact, heads of security
often have managers to lead their teams, while the heads themselves concentrate on their functional
capacity of cross-business security leadership using the medium of relationship building.
It is often said that the success of a security leader is less influenced by his or her knowledge or power,
and more influenced by the strength of his or her relationships. Hoover et al (2010) report that this
view is echoed by recruiters, a survey of whom indicated that the top three factors in leader selection
are, in order:
1. Communications and interpersonal skills.
2. Ability to work well within a team.
3. Analytical and problem-solving skills.
These imperatives are well known by students of emotional intelligence, who understand that
successful leaders build effective relationships in order to influence others and are highly attuned to
the needs of the parties with whom they network.
The following core tenets of emotional intelligence, adapted from Lussier and Achua (2010), can add
to the likelihood that your relationships and networking will deliver success:
Self-Awareness – Be conscious of your emotions and how they affect your personal and professional
life. Use your self-awareness to accurately assess your strengths and limitations, and you will gain in
self-confidence.
Social Awareness – The ability to understand others. Empathy is an ability to put yourself in other
people’s situations. Lots of us have it, but we are often so busy that we overlook it. This also includes
developing networks and playing organisational politics!
Self-Management – This is the control of disruptive emotions, yours and others. Don’t let negative
emotions (worry, anxiety, fear, anger) interfere with getting things done. Characteristics of selfmanagement include self-motivation, integrity, conscientiousness, adaptability, and optimism.
Relationship Management – Successful leaders build effective relationships by communicating,
responding to emotions, handling conflict, and influencing others.

14 | P a g e
v1.2.0 (0821)
© Copyright ISMI Certification Ltd. No unauthorised sharing, copying, reuse in whole or in part,
uploading or webhosting permitted.
Unit 4 – Leadership and Management Core Skills
Managing Change
Introduction
One of the most challenging aspects of management that you will undoubtedly be faced with at some
time or another is managing change. This may be change that has been imposed upon you, or change
which you have personally implemented.
Change is an essential part of human development. This was recognised long ago:
“Change is the only
constant,”
wrote ancient Greek philosopher Heraclitus. Roman Gaius Petronius, for his part,
complained in AD 66:
“…but it seemed every time we were beginning to form up into teams we would be
reorganised. I was to learn later in life that we tend to meet any new situation by
reorganisation and a wonderful method it can be for creating the illusion of progress
while producing confusion, inefficiency and demoralisation.”
What was true more than 2,000 years ago is just as true today. We live in a world where “business as
usual” is “business undergoing change”. New initiatives, project-based working, technology
improvements, staying ahead of the competition – these and many other aspects of modern business
come together to drive ongoing changes to the way we work.
Change within organisations is now constant and radical. “Adapt or die” is a common mantra; a
statement which would gain some sympathy from Darwin. Businesses must be adaptive and must
continually reflect external changes that are taking place, such as customer demand, customer
expectations, new technology, the environment, society etc. Companies are booming, shrinking,
demerging, downsizing, delayering and outsourcing.
STEP and SWOT Analysis
When reflecting on how well a business can cope with future change, two very basic analysis tools,
STEP and SWOT, are often used.
STEP is a headings template for considering the factors that drive change:

Social Technological
Economic Political/Legislative

The method is that staff would get together and try to populate each heading box with as many
business-relevant examples as possible. STEP is very basic, and there are more complex alternatives,
but it is good for leading mind-blasting sessions, in which groups of employees can be brought
together to share their thoughts. SWOT, overleaf, is used by workgroups similarly.

15 | P a g e
v1.2.0 (0821)
© Copyright ISMI Certification Ltd. No unauthorised sharing, copying, reuse in whole or in part,
uploading or webhosting permitted.
Unit 4 – Leadership and Management Core Skills
SWOT is used to determine how a business can best respond to change. It helps a business understand
where it should best focus its resources, and helps identify areas of weakness:

Strengths Weaknesses
Opportunities Threats

In this context, of course, the term “threats” doesn’t specifically refer to security threats. A fastemerging competitor with a good source of investment is a better example of a threat.
The Impact of Change
Change has become the norm and stability the exception. A security manager who is uncomfortable
with the concept of change does not fit well in a large organisation. Not only must the security
manager be receptive to change, but he/she must also be an innovator and leader of change. It could
be assumed that the primary driver of change in security management is risk, but in reality it is more
likely to be cost and efficiency. Security is a fixed cost and every successful business leader knows that
fixed costs must be driven down in order to remain competitive. In many instances this means more
effective use of technology as a force multiplier, and
less reliance on excessive and increasingly expensive
manpower.
This doesn’t mean that you should be constantly
implementing change. This would cause instability
and undermine morale. Maslow (right) identifies
stability as a crucial foundation of motivation.
Importantly, if you are a newly-appointed security
manager you should hold back for a few weeks and
ensure that any changes that you plan to make are
the results of a detailed study. One of the primary
reasons why change fails is that it was the wrong change in the first place. Furthermore, a study by
LeadershipIQ.com (
http://www.prweb.com/releases/2005/06/prweb253465.htm ) found that 31% of
CEOs get fired for mismanaging change.
Change causes problems. While societies need change to advance, individuals conversely seek
stability. Workplace change, in particular, is threatening to individuals. It threatens the break-up of
established work teams, introduces new ways of doing things that may be believed to be beyond
individual skill sets, and sometimes brings redundancies. This naturally leads to resistance. The
Kubler-Ross change curve (overleaf) is a useful tool in helping the manager understand how change
can affect employees. Originally designed in 1969 to illustrate how those with terminal illness cope

16 | P a g e
v1.2.0 (0821)
© Copyright ISMI Certification Ltd. No unauthorised sharing, copying, reuse in whole or in part,
uploading or webhosting permitted.
Unit 4 – Leadership and Management Core Skills
with the news, it has since been adapted and modified by students of change management to
demonstrate how employees sometimes respond to change.
The Kubler-Ross Change Curve
The following adaptation of the curve is taken from http://www.educational-businessarticles.com/change-curve.html

Stage Your Action The Reaction
1 The change is
announced.
Shock and denial. Immediate uncertainty and perceived
threat to stability. Employees were happy with the existing
situation and fear change. Morale begins to drop.
2 You provide support
and reassurance.
Suspicions persist. Rumours develop. Some employees
become angry and resentful. They feel that they have
committed everything to the organisation, but that the
organisation isn’t interested in them. Morale hits its lowest
point.
3 You provide direction. With the realisation that the change is inevitable, some
employees begin to explore what the change entails and how
they can best adjust. Others see no other possibility and
“submit” to the change. Concerns continue, but morale
slowly begins its return journey to the pre-existing level.
4 You provide
encouragement.
From this point you start to see action, and more employees
realise that the change has positive benefits. Commitment
follows when employees are given the necessary support to
meet the requirements of the change. Concerns shift from the
personal to those about team adjustment and enabling.

17 | P a g e
v1.2.0 (0821)
© Copyright ISMI Certification Ltd. No unauthorised sharing, copying, reuse in whole or in part,
uploading or webhosting permitted.
Unit 4 – Leadership and Management Core Skills
Similar interpretations can be found at:
http://www.aon.com/attachments/human-capitalconsulting/2013_Managing_Engagement_During_Times_of_Change_White_Paper.pdf
http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newPPM_96.htm
Kotter’s Change Management Steps
Kotter (1990) provides an 8-step methodology to implement change.
Step 1: Create Urgency – For change to happen, it helps if the whole organisation really wants it, so
the change must be sold to the staff. Develop a sense of urgency around the need for change, and
support with risk scenarios and not-to-be missed opportunities. Open an honest and convincing
dialogue about the need for the change and if you can convince staff to start talking about the change
you propose, the urgency can build and feed on itself. As a benchmark, 75% of the organisation’s
management needs to buy into the change, and senior management buy-in needs to be broadcast.
But don’t move too fast. If you act without proper preparation you could be in for a very bumpy ride.
Step 2: Form a Powerful Coalition – Use your leadership and relationship-building skills to convince
staff that change is necessary. Managing change isn’t enough – you have to lead it. To lead change,
you need to bring together a coalition, or team, of influential people whose power comes from across
the organisation. Select on job title, status, expertise, and the extent to which they can negotiate,
lead, influence and have the ears of others.
Step 3: Create a Vision for Change – Bring together the various change ideas that you have into a clear
vision that can be understood by everybody. Include a short vision statement that can be shared and
remembered. A clear vision can help everyone understand why you’re asking them to do something.
When staff see for themselves what you’re trying to achieve, the directives they are given tend to
make more sense. Ensure that the vision is supported by a strategy.
Step 4: Communicate the Vision – Do this frequently and powerfully as there are lots of other
important things going on in an organisation on a day-to-day basis, and your message may get lost in
the clutter. There will be anxieties and concerns, so create and maintain momentum to address these.
If you are seen to be responsive and sincere you will get increased buy-in.
Step 5: Remove Obstacles – Put in place the structure for change, and continually check for barriers
to it. It is almost inevitable that there will be barriers to change. These may be practical or human.
Identify who is resisting the change and why. Understanding and helping those affected to remove
obstacles will empower them to accept the change. Much of this can be done through active members
of your change coalition.
Step 6: Create Short-Term Wins – Although not specifically identified by Maslow and Herzberg,
creating opportunities for success is crucial to motivating. Kotter recognises this and advocates the
creation of short-term wins or targets (alongside long-term goals) so that staff not only quickly see the
benefits of the change, but can see the role that they can play in it. Each “win” that you produce can

18 | P a g e
v1.2.0 (0821)
© Copyright ISMI Certification Ltd. No unauthorised sharing, copying, reuse in whole or in part,
uploading or webhosting permitted.
Unit 4 – Leadership and Management Core Skills
enhance the motivation and confidence of staff. But note that you must select and create your shortterm wins with great care. If you don’t succeed with an early goal, it can hurt your entire change
initiative.
Step 7: Build on the Change – Kotter argues that many change projects fail because victory is declared
too early. Real change runs deep and should be the subject of long-term planning. Quick wins are
important elements in an overall strategy but only the beginning of what needs to be done to achieve
long-term change. Each success provides an opportunity to build on what went right and to identify
what you can improve. Successful change will also involve continuous learning and improvement.
Step 8: Anchor the Changes in Corporate Culture – Finally, to make any change stick, it should reflect
the values of your organisation, and become aligned with your organisational culture. It may even
influence organisational culture and values. Embedding the change in culture is also helped by
visibility. It may be that the change will become part of everyday processes. If not, you will have to
work hard to maintain momentum in the early days to ensure things don’t regress back to the previous
condition. At the outset you will have secured the support of top management, but it is important to
ensure continued top-management support, recognising that the make-up of top management
changes over a period of time. This can be helped by continually communicating and celebrating
success.
Kotter is frequently cited as the key thinker in change management, but security management
students in classroom courses have produced equally valid models, summarised below:
1. Observe, then try to conceptualise what you are trying to achieve and how to achieve it.
2. Create a change management team.
3. Draw up a provisional plan.
4. Consult, engage and gather feedback from stakeholders.
5. Be aware of why change sometimes fails.
6. Anticipate resistance.
7. Review, plan, act.
8. Implement, and make adjustments as necessary.

19 | P a g e
v1.2.0 (0821)
© Copyright ISMI Certification Ltd. No unauthorised sharing, copying, reuse in whole or in part,
uploading or webhosting permitted.
Unit 4 – Leadership and Management Core Skills
Project Management
Introduction
A project is characterised by having a unique purpose and goal, specific resources and completion
within a defined timeframe. Projects require a specific form of management. Dinsmore (Patterson,
2005) defines project management as “the mixture of people, systems, and techniques required to
carry the project to successful completion.”
Within a security context this could be the installation of a security system such as CCTV, a transition
from in-house to contract guarding, a major rewrite of security policies and procedures – or a whole
list of other specific, time-bound activities.
A project is different from a regular management activity in that it:
May be led by somebody other than a senior manager.
Is limited in resources. These will typically be agreed at the outset of the project.
May involve an element of risk. Project risk is typically associated with overrun, which can
be expressed in both time and cost.
Is often associated with a change of one kind or another.
Project Variables and Team Composition
Projects bring together resources – human, financial and material – and are often bound by four
variables:
It is important that the balance between
the four variables is correct. This must be
agreed and documented from the outset
of the project.
A project typically requires a sponsor, a
project leader, or coordinator, and a plan
– or several different kinds of plans.
The person chosen to lead the project
may not be the most senior ranking
person in the project team. For example,
a project to install a new CCTV system can
be led by a competent technical security
manager, but the project team may
include more senior persons, such as
head of IT and head of Legal. What is
important is that the project leader possesses the correct personal qualities and skills. Patterson
(2005) identifies these as good organisation, good people skills, great follow-up skills, process

20 | P a g e
v1.2.0 (0821)
© Copyright ISMI Certification Ltd. No unauthorised sharing, copying, reuse in whole or in part,
uploading or webhosting permitted.
Unit 4 – Leadership and Management Core Skills
oriented, ability to multitask, logical thought process, ability to determine root causes, good analytical
ability, being a good estimator and budget manager, and having good self-discipline. As a busy
security management professional, it may not be advisable for you to take on complex project
management activities yourself unless you can commit to them full-time. Projects are time-bound,
and will overrun unless your commitment and attention can be 100%.
Project Phases
A project typically has four phases:
1. Initiation and feasibility.
2. Planning and development.
3. Execution.
4. Closeout.
Phase 1 Initiation and Feasibility The need for the project is identified and a business case
prepared. This leads to a feasibility study of the various options. A solution is then selected and the
project is initiated.
Terms of reference are then produced, and these are often developed into a
project scope document, which outlines the following:
Objectives.
Scope.
Preliminary cost estimates.
Estimated hours, duration, start and completion times.
Assumptions.
Project risks.
Structure and overview of the work to be accomplished.
In determining the scope, Patterson (2005) suggests addressing the following questions:
What business processes are in scope and out of scope?
What transactions are in scope and out of scope?
What data will the project work with, and what data is out of scope?
Which organisations will be affected, and which will not?
Which other projects are affected, and which will be left alone?
Once this has been completed, approval is then sought from the project sponsor to move into the
detailed planning stage.
Phase 2 Planning and Development – This phase involves developing and adding to the work already
undertaken in the first phase and producing a comprehensive documented
project plan. Most
important of all is a detailed identification of:

21 | P a g e
v1.2.0 (0821)
© Copyright ISMI Certification Ltd. No unauthorised sharing, copying, reuse in whole or in part,
uploading or webhosting permitted.
Unit 4 – Leadership and Management Core Skills
All the resources needed (direct labour, equipment, software, materials, indirect labour such
as IT and administrative support etc). This phase should incorporate a
procurement plan as
it is likely that outside suppliers will be engaged, and procurement can be a complex
process. Also included in this phase is provision for storage of materials.
Related to the above, the selection of team members for the project management team.
These may include internal employees (IT, HR, Legal, Engineering etc) and externals
(contractors and possibly an outsourced project manager consultant). It may be useful to
produce a short
job description for each team member, setting out roles and responsibilities.
Task sequencing, presented as a work breakdown structure, ideally using appropriate
software.
Development of timescales, targets, milestones and dependencies, and system for change
control.
A budget with detailed cost estimates (ideally within 10% of final costs).
Agreeing the criteria for what constitutes completion and customer acceptance. This can be
built into a
testing and acceptance plan, and should address training, testing and
documentation.
Quality plan (providing quality targets, assurance and control measures).
Contingency plan (to include time and cost quantifications based on estimated risk, plus
mitigation actions).
Payment plan which should tie any contract payments to specific phases.
Communications plan listing the information needed to inform stakeholders of progress.
(The definition of stakeholder should include anybody affected by the project, and anybody
who has an input into the project).
Phase 3 Execution This phase involves the execution of each activity and task listed in the project
plan
and the associated work breakdown structure. It may last from a few weeks to several months,
depending on the scope of the project. Project management should coordinate and monitor closely
to ensure that the project follows the course of the
work breakdown structure, that deliverables are
met and that outputs meet acceptance criteria. There should also be close financial control to ensure
the project stays on budget.
Projects are not regular, routine activities. By their very nature, projects are often unique with unique,
sometimes unforeseen, problems. Therefore, many projects are subject to change. Some changes

22 | P a g e
v1.2.0 (0821)
© Copyright ISMI Certification Ltd. No unauthorised sharing, copying, reuse in whole or in part,
uploading or webhosting permitted.
Unit 4 – Leadership and Management Core Skills
may be minor, while many will involve the approval of a change review board once the execution
phase is underway.
Also completed at this stage are all parallel activities involving all parts of the organisation, such as
training, testing, and documentation. Once all of the deliverables have been produced and the
customer has accepted the final solution, the project is ready for closure.
Phase 4 Closeout – This phase entails releasing the final deliverables to the customer, terminating
supplier contracts, and communicating the closure of the project to all stakeholders. The last
remaining step is to undertake a documented
“lessons learned” review to quantify the overall success
of the project and to serve as a reference aid for future projects.
Method 123 (2003) suggests that the closeout phase includes the following:
Identifying any outstanding items (activities, risks or issues).
Producing a hand-over plan to transfer the deliverables to the customer environment.
Listing the activities required to hand over documentation, cancelling supplier contracts and
releasing project resources to the business.
Communicating closure to all stakeholders and interested parties.
A
project closure report is then submitted to the customer and/or project sponsor for approval. The
project manager is responsible for undertaking each of the activities identified within the
project
closure report
on time and according to budget.
Excellent resources and templates on project management can be downloaded from
www.method123.com or accessed on the ISMI extranet. An excellent reference on physical
protection systems project management is
Implementing Physical Protection Systems: A Practical
Guide
by David Patterson. This is available in both hardcopy and Kindle download from Amazon.
23 | P a g e
v1.2.0 (0821)
© Copyright ISMI Certification Ltd. No unauthorised sharing, copying, reuse in whole or in part,
uploading or webhosting permitted.
Unit 4 – Leadership and Management Core Skills
Business Finance and the Cost of Security
Introduction
A basic understanding of business finance will ensure that the security manager appreciates the value
that the security programme brings to the enterprise, and also the cost of that programme on the
bottom line.
There is an assumption, often incorrect, that businesses need strong security in order to survive. Many
businesses survive with little or no security structure, other than baseline security measures such as
locks, secure storage and alarms. For these businesses risk management is often executed through
insurance. Insurance premiums are set by estimating the probability of an event and multiplying this
by the impact cost if that event should occur. So, at its most basic, if a company wants to insure stock
against burglary it will charge as an annual premium a percentage of the value of the stock. The
percentage will be a probability of being burgled during a specific period. For example, if a company
wishes to insure $10,000 of property in an area where there is a 1% chance of being burgled in a year,
the risk (or annual loss expectancy) is technically $100 ($10,000 x 1%). An insurer may charge $200
(2%) as an insurance premium, which includes the insurer’s margin. This is obviously an
oversimplification and is used for illustration only.
In ideal and predictable circumstances security can work in a similar manner. For example, in IT
security 5% of the total build and operating cost of an IT system is often considered a reasonable
investment in security. In reality, 5% is more than a good deal, since the ultimate target of an attack
on an IT system is often not the IT system specifically, but the dependent business enterprise as a
whole, where the consequential costs can be enormous. For example, 5% of a corporate IT
infrastructure project costing $500,000 would be $25,000. For a company that is critically dependent
on its IT systems, $25,000 may seem like a good deal to prevent it from losing its market share and
collapsing in the event of a major IT attack. And in a European context this may be the equivalent of
just one security officer’s salary for 35 hours a week. Is there a physical security parallel in which a
single security officer could deliver the same potential return on investment?
From the perspective of the physical security manager, physical security is a must, but there may be a
different view from the perspective of the business manager. This is why generic business
management skills, such as understanding cost, are important in security management. You cannot
continually make the case for security on fear, uncertainty and doubt (FUD). In the long term this will
lead to security downsizing. There has to be a financial case based on loss projections.
How Expensive Is Your Salary to the Organisation?
One way to better help you understand security costs and their relationship to business costs is to
refer to Broder’s (2006) loss measurement model, which was first introduced in Module 1. In this
adaptation, we have substituted
cost of salaries in place of loss.
24 | P a g e
v1.2.0 (0821)
© Copyright ISMI Certification Ltd. No unauthorised sharing, copying, reuse in whole or in part,
uploading or webhosting permitted.
Unit 4 – Leadership and Management Core Skills
To calculate the additional business sales needed to make up for security salaries, the underlying
equation is the cost of salaries/net profit percentage expressed as a fraction of 1. If that seems
complex, just refer to the chart.

If a company operates at a net profit of

 

Cost of
Salaries
2% 3% 4% 5% 6%
These additional sales are required to offset the cost of salaries
$50,000 $2,500,000 $1,666,000 $1,250,000 $1,000,000 $833,000
$100,000 $5,000,000 $3,333,000 $2,500,000 $2,000,000 $1,666,000
$200,000 $10,000,000 $6,666,000 $5,000,000 $4,000,000 $3,333,000

As an illustration, if security salaries in a business operating on a net profit of 3% amount to $100,000
a year, that business will have to generate an extra $3.3 million in sales just to cover the cost of those
salaries. The arithmetic is $100,000 ÷ 0.03 = $3,333,333. This leads conveniently into the next
question.
How Much Security Can a Business Afford?
It is simplistic for a security manager to present a threat scenario based on FUD and then argue that
the business cannot afford to be without security. The reality is that many businesses, especially small
to medium enterprises, cannot afford to buy security. A turnover of $20 million for a SME may seem
healthy, but if that enterprise is financed by loans and is generating 4% net profit a year – $800,000 –
what percentage of that $800,000 should be allocated to security when there are competing demands
for new infrastructure projects to dynamically boost output, a need for new IT infrastructure,
distribution vehicles that need to be purchased, a dynamic marketing team to be hired, an urgent
need to upgrade quality to match competitors, or a need to finance the debt? Viewed through the
eyes of business the need for “just in case” security may seem less of an imperative when compared
with other, more immediate needs, and insurance is often selected as a risk management alternative.
Taking the above case, if you argued that 5% of net profit would be reasonable – not an unreasonable
argument – how much security would an annual budget of $40,000 a year get you? A single guard
post for 16 hours a day, 5 days a week perhaps?
It is not easy to make the case for physical security (equipment and manpower). Is it really worth
deploying security officers at a cost of $200,000 a year to protect an asset which is valued at
$1,000,000 and which has a statistical probability of compromise of 10% a year? On the face of it, no,
as we are spending $200,000 to manage a risk that is only worth $100,000 (10% of $1,000,000). And

25 | P a g e
v1.2.0 (0821)
© Copyright ISMI Certification Ltd. No unauthorised sharing, copying, reuse in whole or in part,
uploading or webhosting permitted.
Unit 4 – Leadership and Management Core Skills
in our assumptions are we inferring that the deployment of the security officers will reduce the risk to
zero or should we base our calculations on a probability of success? However, this simple arithmetic
doesn’t take into account the consequential loss. If the business were to lose $1,000,000 of nonimmediately replaceable assets in one burglary, could it continue to function? The consequential
losses would be many times the direct losses.
One of the frequent false assumptions of security managers is to regard physical security as a “musthave” and the security budget as being sacrosanct. This isn’t the case. Businesses are continually
cutting costs to remain competitive, and the security budget is an obvious target. Often, when
spending cuts are necessary the security manager that hasn’t based his or her case for security on a
sound financial foundation will be less able than his cross-business peers to present a cogent argument
to defend his/her budget. Thus, an understanding of basic arithmetic is important.
The Security Cost Element in Overall Business Costs
In any business there are three basic kinds of cost:
Variable Costs – These vary according to output. For example, in a car factory, the amount of raw
material metal required will vary in direct proportion to the number of cars produced. Businesses
constantly try to negotiate best deals for raw materials through a variety of means.
Semi-Variable Costs – These are costs which, to some extent, vary according to production, but which
always have a baseline cost, irrespective of the level of output. Energy is the most obvious example.
Taking a power station as an example, the boilers need to be fuelled and burning constantly
irrespective of power generation demand. When demand increases, the boilers work harder, of
course, requiring more fuel. There is little businesses can do to reduce the unit cost of energy, so they
have to look at more efficient and innovative ways of energy use, supply and recycling. An innovative
way of energy recycling can be found in Worcestershire in the UK, where recycled heat from a
municipal crematorium is used to heat the municipal swimming pool!
Fixed Costs – Of all the cost groups, it is fixed costs (often referred to as overheads) that can cripple a
company into becoming non-competitive. Unlike variable costs, and to an extent semi-variable costs,
fixed costs remain constant irrespective of the level of output, income or profit. Fixed costs can
include rent, administrative staff and, importantly, the security budget. It is therefore not surprising
that when businesses need to cut costs this is where the first bite occurs.
The example that follows shows how security costs can become an increasing concern when
production falls. For the purposes of the following illustration, costs have been grouped into fixed and
variable categories only, and semi-variable costs have been allocated to either variable costs or fixed
costs categories.

26 | P a g e
v1.2.0 (0821)
© Copyright ISMI Certification Ltd. No unauthorised sharing, copying, reuse in whole or in part,
uploading or webhosting permitted.
Unit 4 – Leadership and Management Core Skills
Abel Bakeries is a small bakery on the outskirts of Nocester. Each day it bakes
1,000 loaves of bread (output) and sells each for $2, generating a total daily
income of $2,000. Its costs (inputs) can be grouped as follows:
Flour and other raw materials (variable) $300
Labour costs (variable) $400
Energy (variable) $100
Premises and distribution costs (fixed) $900
Security costs (fixed) $100
Gross profit $200
Using the above figures, we can see that security represents 5% of the retail price of a loaf of bread:
$100 is spent on security every day and 1000 loaves are sold at $2 each, generating sales of $2,000.
The arithmetic for “$100 of $2,000” is
$100 ÷ (1000 loaves x $2). What if Abel Bakeries experienced
a security incident one night resulting in reduced capacity the following day, producing and delivering
only 500 loaves? This would reduce the income by half to $1,000, but the security costs of $100 would
be the same, thereby increasing the security element of the retail price to 10%: $100 would be spent
on security for $1,000 return on sales. The arithmetic is
$100 ÷ (500 loaves x $2).
The cost of security would push the business deeper into loss, since total fixed costs ($900 + $100)
would remain unaffected irrespective of the level of output, while variable costs would decrease by
half from $800 to $400, making a total cost base of $1,400 against an income of $1,000.
Security Costs and Break Even Analysis
There are other ways to look at the relationship between security costs and production. One
important method is with the use of break-even analysis, for which, again, we have simplified the
process by grouping semi-variable costs into either variable or fixed costs categories.
Take the table overleaf as a starting point:

27 | P a g e
v1.2.0 (0821)
© Copyright ISMI Certification Ltd. No unauthorised sharing, copying, reuse in whole or in part,
uploading or webhosting permitted.
Unit 4 – Leadership and Management Core Skills

Output of Loaves
per Day
Sales Income per Day
(based on $2 per loaf)
Total Costs per Day Margin
250 $500 $1,200 ($700)
500 $1,000 $1,400 ($400)
750 $1,500 $1,600 ($100)
834 $1,666 $1,666 0
1,000 $2,000 $1,800 $200
1,250 $2,500 $2,000 $500
1,500 $3,000 $2,200 $800
2,000 $4,000 $2,600 $1,400

The table above (based on the Abel Bakeries costs presented earlier) indicates the relationship
between income and cost for given levels of production. The table indicates in grey shading the breakeven point (BEP) for production at which income is equivalent to production costs. This is 834 loaves.
An increase in costs or a change in the retail price will alter the position of the BEP.
As we have already indicated, fixed costs have to be paid irrespective of how well the business is
trading. Examples include rent, interest charges, personnel, etc, and importantly for you
security.
Variable costs include raw materials.
Break even analysis can be produced on a graph or calculated by the following formula:
Fixed costs
Selling price per unit – variable costs per unit
Taking our example above, let’s assume the following:
Fixed costs per day = $1,000
Selling price per unit = $2
Variable costs per unit = $0.8 ($800 total variable costs ÷ 1,000 units)
We can now put these figures into the formula:
Fixed costs (1,000)
Selling price per unit (2) – variable cost per unit (0.8)
= 834 loaves
(in fact 833.333 recurring)
28 | P a g e
v1.2.0 (0821)
© Copyright ISMI Certification Ltd. No unauthorised sharing, copying, reuse in whole or in part,
uploading or webhosting permitted.
Unit 4 – Leadership and Management Core Skills
From these figures, we can calculate that Abel Bakeries needs to sell 834 loaves of bread each day to
break even. Now, imagine if, for some reason, there was a need to increase the cost of security by
20% to $120 a day. This would raise the company’s BEP by a further 16 loaves of bread from 834 to
850 units a day ($1,020 ÷ 1.2 = 850 loaves). Could the company achieve this increase in sales in a
competitive market? The alternative would be to increase the unit cost of each loaf; hardly conducive
to being competitive when the company is probably looking to increase its margins.
Capital and Operating Expenditure
For any security expenditure there are likely two kinds of costs: Outlay costs, usually called capital
expenditure (capex)
and recurring costs, usually called operating expenditure (opex). These are
typically expressed over a period of a year. Security equipment has a high capex and usually a low
recurring opex. Manpower has a high opex and a low capex. In some circumstances security elements
have both a high capex and a high opex and sometimes equipment is procured without a full
appreciation of the associated opex costs.
A CCTV installation, for example, costing $250,000 in capital expenditure could easily consume the
equivalent opex costs over a 4-year period in the provision of monitoring and response services (see
illustration below). Manpower is the most vivid example of operating costs, and, unlike hardware, is
likely to rise year on year.

Capital Expenditure (Initial Purchase
and Spares)
Operating Expenditure (Maintenance
and 24hr/day Monitoring)
Year Cost Total Year Cost Total
1 $250k $250k 1 $60k $60
2 $5k $255k 2 $70k $130
3 $10k $265k 3 $80k $210
4 $20 $285k 4 $90k $300

Zero-Based Budgeting
Historically, security budgets were fixed, and security managers could expect a modest percentage
increase each year. Today, conditions are much more competitive and times are leaner. Increasingly,
the concept of zero-based budgeting (ZBB) is being used. This allows for departmental contribution
to overall financial goals to be more accurately measured. ZBB requires that all departmental
objectives and associated financial costs for each new period be analysed and justified in advance,
beginning from a zero base. Regardless of whether the previous budget was higher or lower, the
budget is then allocated according to the specific goals of the projected period. This is a time

29 | P a g e
v1.2.0 (0821)
© Copyright ISMI Certification Ltd. No unauthorised sharing, copying, reuse in whole or in part,
uploading or webhosting permitted.
Unit 4 – Leadership and Management Core Skills
consuming process, but a key advantage is that it combines planning and budgeting into an integrated
activity. An essential precursor to a zero-based budget for security is a detailed security risk analysis,
projecting in detail one year ahead, and in outline for several years to follow.
(For more information see
http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_does_mean_by_zero_based_budget )
The Major Accounting Documents of Business
Marcousé et al (2005) divide a business’ major accounting documents into two groups:
Financial accounting tools.
Balance sheet.
Profit and loss account.
Cash flow statement.
Management accounting tools.
Cash flow forecasts.
Budgets.
Contribution statements.
Investment appraisal.
Break-even charts.
It is not the purpose of this module to provide a detailed explanation of each. If you wish to
understand these documents in more depth, ISMI can recommend good business management text
books. Marcousé et al (2005) provide the following definitions for each of the above:
Financial Accounting Tools
Balance Sheet
– A snapshot of a firm’s assets, liabilities and sources of capital at any moment in time.
It helps answer questions such as:
What is the business worth?
Can it afford to expand?
Is it a safe investment?
Profit and Loss Account – Shows the level of profit made in the most recent trading period. Profit is
calculated by subtracting costs and expenses from revenue. This helps answer questions such as:

30 | P a g e
v1.2.0 (0821)
© Copyright ISMI Certification Ltd. No unauthorised sharing, copying, reuse in whole or in part,
uploading or webhosting permitted.
Unit 4 – Leadership and Management Core Skills
Is the firm trading successfully?
Are the senior managers proving effective?
Is it likely to be a profitable investment?
Cash Flow Statement – This is required in the published financial accounts of public limited companies
only. It shows where cash has come from and where cash has been used over the course of the past
year. It answers these questions:
How easily was the firm able to find the cash to finance its recent activities?
Was the finance generated from within the business, or was outside finance needed?
Management Accounting Tools
Cash Flow Forecasts
– These estimate what a firm’s bank account will look like in each month of the
coming year.
Budgets – Financial plans which can be set for costs and/or revenues. They are a way of coordinating,
motivating and controlling the key activities of the business over the coming year.
Contribution Statements – These set out the contribution to overheads made by each division or
department of a firm. This helps in providing more capital to finance the expansion of the most
profitable product areas.
Investment Appraisal – These calculations help decide whether a prospective investment project is
financially attractive. From a security perspective, this is the business case that sets out the projected
return on investment for a new security project.
Break-Even Charts – These indicate revenues and costs and therefore profit at all possible levels of
output. They enable the break-even point, where neither a profit nor loss is made, to be identified.
They can be useful in decision making on issues such as pricing, cost cutting or expansion.

31 | P a g e
v1.2.0 (0821)
© Copyright ISMI Certification Ltd. No unauthorised sharing, copying, reuse in whole or in part,
uploading or webhosting permitted.
Unit 4 – Leadership and Management Core Skills
PART II – MANAGING YOURSELF
Personal Professional Development
Introduction
With workplace pressures so intense it is easy to overlook your own personal professional
development. Professional development should be viewed as an opportunity to improve the way you
do things currently, perhaps through greater knowledge, through interaction with other professionals,
or through skills development.
In security management specifically, the aim should be to move as far as possible from reactivity to
proactivity. But there are two drawbacks associated with this:
1. Proactive security programmes are, by necessity, analysis- and intelligence-based. With
reactive security, at least you have the benefit of knowing the nature of the problem that has
occurred so you can be quantifiably precise in applying a fix. With proactive security you have
to model scenarios and hope that the strategy you put into place will prevent most
undesirable incidents. Without the benefits of professional development you could fall into
the trap of spending huge amounts on physical security, for example, while the biggest
financial losses are occurring in fraud and information theft and are left largely unmitigated.
2. It is relatively easy to demonstrate a return on investment for reactive security. The cost of
an incident can be calculated and this can then be measured against the cost of mitigation.
With proactive security, who is to say that the incidents you envisage, and for which you have
spent inordinate amounts of money preventing, would ever have occurred? It is a sad irony
that those proactive security programmes which are the most successful in preventing
incidents are often those which are the first to be cut back.
Professional development will help equip you with the tools to carry out effective risk mapping so that
your security management programme can be focused where it is needed most, and to demonstrate
in bottom-line terms the value that your programme brings to the enterprise. It will also enhance
your skill set so that you can add value to your overall contribution.
The Importance of Developing Good Generic Management Skills
You will recall from the introductory section that to be successful in security management in a
corporate setting it is as important to be a good generic business manager as it is to be a good security
specialist. This should indicate to you that developing your generic business management skills
through professional development is important. Experience through many years of training security
managers face to face leads the writers of this programme to conclude that, generally, the three
weakest areas among security managers attending these programmes are:
1.
Financial skills. Some security managers attending classroom courses fail to demonstrate
conclusively during project work that they are proficient in putting together a comprehensive
budget, let alone demonstrate a financial return on investment of the quality that would

32 | P a g e
v1.2.0 (0821)
© Copyright ISMI Certification Ltd. No unauthorised sharing, copying, reuse in whole or in part,
uploading or webhosting permitted.
Unit 4 – Leadership and Management Core Skills
satisfy a management board. Before you disagree with the above statements, assess your
own skills in this area in the question relating to the Business Finance section of this module.
2.
Analytical skills. Most security managers are able to grasp the basics of risk analysis, but many
cannot demonstrate use of the tools to develop more advanced risk modeling scenarios. Also,
there is often a disjoin between the results of the risk analysis, the resultant security
programme elements and the budget – yet it is obvious that if a significant risk exists, it will
require mitigation, and that mitigation will usually have an associated quantifiable cost in both
capex and opex, unless it is specifically procedural in nature. This is a most basic
consideration.
3.
Presentation skills. Again, perhaps a delicate subject to address because most security
managers believe they are great presenters. But the facts amongst students in classroom
courses speak for themselves. Some security managers don’t have the skills to construct a
good presentation, and even fewer can deliver a convincing business case for a security
programme, based on a sound financial argument. A large number are not able to
demonstrate in the classroom that they would be able to convince a management team to
buy in to their concept. The danger for some security managers is that their presentation
might cause management to question their reasoning skills.
In all three of the above areas, there is much you can do to improve your skills. Analysis, finance and
presentation skills are all key to being a successful security manager and are all generic skill sets that
you can develop by attending courses in business administration and management. You should also
consider courses in the following generic core skills areas:
Negotiating and influencing.
Marketing.
Project management.
Communications.
Innovation and change.
Information technology.
Managing operations.
Law.
Quality management.
Corporate citizenship, social
responsibility and sustainability.
Equality and diversity.
You can doubtless think of other areas.
Some of the above you may be able to undertake internally. For others you may have access to a local
college, or you could consider distance learning. But there is no substitute for sitting in a class with
other professionals from different backgrounds and companies in a shared learning environment.

33 | P a g e
v1.2.0 (0821)
© Copyright ISMI Certification Ltd. No unauthorised sharing, copying, reuse in whole or in part,
uploading or webhosting permitted.
Unit 4 – Leadership and Management Core Skills
Specific Security Management Professional Development Options
As a security management practitioner, there are a number of options open to you to develop your
security management skills. Some of these are summarised below with comments.

Option Advantages Disadvantages
Certifications These allow you to study in your own
time. Some, such as the ASIS CPP,
require you to pass an examination,
while others, such as the CSMP,
continuously assess you and are tutor
supported. Widely regarded as a
benchmark in security management
competence.
Relatively inexpensive, often priced to
allow access to those who are self
funding.
Distance study doesn’t allow you to get
together in a classroom and share
experiences and best practices.
Easy to put to one side, especially if you
have other, pressing commitments.
Some may be too nationally focused,
with too much emphasis on national
law and national standards
associations.
Training Courses Collegiate learning environment fosters
more rapid assimilation.
Quality varies significantly between
companies. You are advised to get a
centre recommendation from previous
attendees before selecting.
Trainers may not be appropriately
qualified and educated, especially in
lower-quality centres.
Can be expensive, and geared to the
corporate purse.
University Degrees Prestigious. Most security
management degrees are at Masters
level, in recognition of prior learning.
Many companies specify degrees for
managerial positions.
Time-consuming to achieve. Often the
emphasis is more on being able to
research and write essays, rather than
developing corporate security
management skills. Many are weak in
business-relevant content when
compared with training courses.
Conferences Great opportunities to network and to
benefit from the knowledge of
foremost practitioners. Relatively
inexpensive. ASIS conferences are
consistently good as there is a rigorous
speaker selection process.
Relatively non-interactive. You listen to
lectures and you may get to ask a
question at the end, if the presenter
doesn’t overrun!
Handouts not usually very good, and
sometimes too commercial.

34 | P a g e
v1.2.0 (0821)
© Copyright ISMI Certification Ltd. No unauthorised sharing, copying, reuse in whole or in part,
uploading or webhosting permitted.
Unit 4 – Leadership and Management Core Skills
Decision Making
Introduction
At every level within management there is a
requirement to make decisions and to be
responsible for the outcomes of those decisions.
The higher you reach on the management ladder,
the more difficult, far reaching and strategic your
decision making must become. Some managers
are very comfortable with making decisions,
while others continually seek advice and help
from their line managers. Some managers prefer
to share the decision making with the team while
others consult but ultimately make the final
decision themselves, based on advice. Some
managers are quick decision makers, while
others prefer to take time to reach difficult decisions. There is no “one size fits all”. What is important
is that the manager comes to the right decision.
Decisions may involve:
Deciding how to react in given circumstances.
How to manage difficult employees.
How to reward good employees.
How to respond to a particular directive.
Who to train in specific areas.
How to communicate (verbal, memo, assignment instructions).
How to prioritise urgent tasks.
How to improve productivity.
How to respond to a complaint.
Which people to assign to tasks.
Which new system to select.
Doubtless, you can add many more examples to this list.
Some decisions can be made automatically, almost without thinking. For example, if, when driving to
work, a vehicle swerves in front of you, you don’t stop to think if you are going to slow down; you
brake automatically. Kahneman (2011) describes these as “System 1” decisions. System 1 operates
A 6-Step Approach to Decision Making
1. Define and clarify the issue.
2. Gather the facts.
3. Think of possible options.
4. Consider the pros and cons of each
option.
5. Select the best option.
6. Follow up on your decision.
Source: Decision Making Skills – The
Practical Supervisor

35 | P a g e
v1.2.0 (0821)
© Copyright ISMI Certification Ltd. No unauthorised sharing, copying, reuse in whole or in part,
uploading or webhosting permitted.
Unit 4 – Leadership and Management Core Skills
automatically and quickly, with little or no effort and no sense of voluntary control. Perhaps the
decision to press on the car horn at the same time as braking was also a System 1 decision!
Other decisions require you to think through the implications, outcomes and consequences of the
decision. These are what Kahneman calls “System 2” decisions. System 2 allocates attention to the
effortful mental activities that demand it, including complex computations. The operations of System
2 are often associated with the conscious, reasoning self that has beliefs, makes choices, and decides
what to think about and what to do. System 2 decisions take longer to make.
Most decisions have an impact on the people you supervise. These people have viewpoints, unique
skills, personalities, strengths and limitations that must be considered when making decisions.
Ten Points to Consider When Making Decisions
1. Are You Looking at the Right Issue?
Ensure you are looking at the right issue. This may seem obvious, but if you have received information
second or third hand, you may make a decision based on incorrect information. Always get to the
root of the problem yourself and ensure that you gather sufficient information to make the right
decision.
2. Is It Your Decision to Make?
Perhaps this is a decision which should and can be made by a less senior member of staff, or perhaps
it can be made by the team. You should empower others to make decisions and accept the
consequences. Decisions made through consensus often have a greater chance of succeeding as they
have buy-in. Mind-blasting (brainstorming) is an option. People who have hands-on knowledge of
the system, either as operators or customers, often have valuable insights to offer. You may also
consider consulting peers. But remember not to shirk decisions that are ultimately your responsibility
to make.
3. What Is the Objective of Making the Decision?
This should be clear as you may have to defend your decision. Is it in response to an incident? Is it to
discipline? Is it to increase efficiency and lower cost? Is it to improve security?
4. How Quickly Must You Make the Decision?
What is the timescale in which the decision needs to be made? Does it need to be immediate or can
you sleep on it in the hope that you will make a better decision? Take care, however; the team will
be looking to you for leadership. and procrastination may be viewed as indecision.
5. What Are the Decision Options and the Possible Implications of Each?
36 | P a g e
v1.2.0 (0821)
© Copyright ISMI Certification Ltd. No unauthorised sharing, copying, reuse in whole or in part,
uploading or webhosting permitted.
Unit 4 – Leadership and Management Core Skills
There is an old adage that says “there is more than one way to skin a cat”. Let your ideas flow freely.
Consider various options and weigh up the pros and cons and implications of each. You could do this
on a sheet of paper. Ask yourself whether each consideration is possible or practical. It is possible,
perhaps likely, that this kind of decision has been made before. There is no point in reinventing the
wheel. Can you learn from the previous decision? Was a “lessons learned” review ever undertaken?
6. Is It the Right Decision?
Are you making the right decision? Kneejerk reactions are undesirable. Sometimes they are wrong,
and other times they are impractical and the decision has to be reversed. Some decisions have to be
made quickly, but others can wait, especially if there are emotions involved. How many times have
you told yourself that you might have done something differently had you allowed yourself some
thinking time? How many times have you looked at other people’s “heat of the moment” decisions
and told yourself that you would have done something different? This is because outside of the
immediate emotions of an incident you can make a much more objective decision. Also, is it the right
decision in terms of costs and benefits? There is little point in putting in place security measures that
have an operational expenditure budget of $30,000 to manage a risk of loss of $1,000 that has an
annual rate of occurrence of 20%.
7. What Will Be the Impact of Your Decision on Others?
Consider the impact of your decision on the people affected by it. Here your emotional intelligence
and empathy qualities should come into play. How would you view this decision if you were in their
place? For example, if you ask a team to work overtime at short notice, to what extent will this affect
their family or social plans? Most people work to live, not the other way around.
8. What Are the Limits of Your Decision?
Can you make decisions that will have a significant impact on those outside of the security structure,
or do you need to present your ideas to a representative working group. For example, can you make
the decision to introduce a biometric access control systems for R&D without first consulting R&D
about what they think they need? Other kinds of decisions may have HR, legal or contractual
implications.
9. Select the Best Option.
By following the preceding steps, you stand a good chance of reaching the correct decision. You may
have consulted, but the final decision rests with you. A good decision is one in which as many parties
as possible affected by the decision feel positive about the outcome. Tough decisions require courage,
an essential quality of being a good leader. Sometimes you have to sacrifice popularity in favour of
selecting the decision that is right and fair. Once the decision is made, you should commit to it. This
may mean writing a plan, a record, or a business case. Your decision should be communicated to
those whom it affects. This may require a combination of verbal and written means. Face-to-face
communication allows people to ask questions and provides you with a platform to “sell” your decision
and explain how you are going to carry it out. Following up in writing reduces the chances of

37 | P a g e
v1.2.0 (0821)
© Copyright ISMI Certification Ltd. No unauthorised sharing, copying, reuse in whole or in part,
uploading or webhosting permitted.
Unit 4 – Leadership and Management Core Skills
misinterpretation, ambiguity and excuses by those who don’t comply. “Going it alone” could cause
confusion, rumours and resentment.
10. Finally, Monitor and Review.
It is important that, after a period of time, you check to ensure that your decision has succeeded in
achieving its goals. Depending on the purpose of your decision this may be established by metrics,
observation or other kinds of feedback, for example satisfaction surveys. Consider adjusting your
decision if necessary. German military strategist Helmuth von Moltke is famously quoted as saying
“No battle plan survives contact with the enemy”. What this means is that decisions, when put into
practice, often have to be reviewed. Rarely will you have to start the decision making process again,
but you may have to make adjustments. If your decision was a success, you may have a model that
you can use for future decisions. For example, project management should always conclude with a
“lessons learned” review document. Going forward, try to anticipate change and the need to make
decisions. Thus, you will allow yourself more time to reach a decision that you are happy with.
Decision Trees
Marcousé (2005) suggests that certain decisions may be aided by the use of decision trees. This
methodology is particularly suited to decisions where a sequence of events or options has to be
followed in conditions of uncertainty. The following is a very simple example of a decision tree to
analyse a decision whether to upgrade a perimeter fence from 2.4m with three strands of barbed wire
topping to 3m with a coil of razor wire resting in Y-configuration outriggers.
The above depicts a very basic decision tree. The square indicates a decision to be made (the option
to do nothing is always present) and the circle indicates chance events beyond the decision maker’s
control. In this illustration the chance events present as a percentage the probability that the upgrade
will reduce intrusions. The tree can obviously be developed to have many branches.

38 | P a g e
v1.2.0 (0821)
© Copyright ISMI Certification Ltd. No unauthorised sharing, copying, reuse in whole or in part,
uploading or webhosting permitted.
Unit 4 – Leadership and Management Core Skills
PART III – MANAGING PEOPLE
Moving from Traditional to Contemporary Management
FW Taylor and Scientific Management
FW Taylor is the father of what has become known as scientific management. Taylor’s influence on
business practice throughout the 20
th Century was huge, and is still evident in companies such as
McDonalds, where there are very precise ways of completing every task to ensure absolute
consistency from one dining experience to the next, irrespective of international boundaries
(Marcousé, 2005).
Taylor saw it as management’s responsibility to decide how every task should be undertaken, and to
devise the tools to achieve that as efficiently as possible. Taylor believed that the underlying
motivation for every employee was economic self-interest. He was tough in his style of management,
advocating bonuses for those who exceeded their targets and penalties for those who fell short. He
was a strong advocate of piece-rate or piecemeal working; workers would be paid in proportion to
what they produced. Among the fans of Taylor were Henry Ford, Mussolini and Stalin, and there can
be no doubt that productivity increased in workplaces as a result of implementing Taylorite practices.
But this also led to increased unionisation and polarisation of management/worker relationships.
Fortunately, new, more people-friendly approaches to worker motivation were developed (discussed,
beginning on Page 68).
Classical Management Structures
Fayol (Page 12) approaches management from a different perspective and is still often regarded as
the father of contemporary management. His
management models are often cited, copied and adapted.
But Perhaps Mintzberg (Page 12) has a more enlightening
approach.
In Fayol’s time, the classic management structure was
pyramidal. Directors would sit at the top while the base of
the pyramid was made up of the regular workforce. From
a visual perspective at least, this still persists in that
directors often occupy the top floors of high-rise offices,
although the way in which they manage has changed. This
pyramidal structure is mirrored in some security
departments, where the security manager sits at the top
of the structure, with a quasi-military rank system of deputy or task-specific managers (lieutenants),
superintendents (warrant officers), supervisors (sergeants) and guards (soldiers), supported by
specialists (junior NCO technicians).

39 | P a g e
v1.2.0 (0821)
© Copyright ISMI Certification Ltd. No unauthorised sharing, copying, reuse in whole or in part,
uploading or webhosting permitted.
Unit 4 – Leadership and Management Core Skills
Leadership-Based Management
Management today is more leadership-focused, and emphasis is on teamwork, consensus, project
management and matrix management, rather than power and authority.
Leadership can mean different things to
different people. Most people think of
leadership as being focussed on directing
and inspiring people, but there is also the
concept of enterprise leadership. Marcousé
et al (2005) explain: The typical creator of a
successful new business is lively, energetic,
creative, often impatient and always a risk
taker. They will have a strong personality,
and possibly an autocratic though
charismatic leadership style. This style of
leadership is probably not appropriate to
managing a security programme.
Warren Bennis (ASIS, 2012) predicted some
time ago that organisations of the future
would identify needless bureaucracy and
remove it and any impediments to free flows of information. Free and full communication regardless
of position would be the norm, with a reliance on consensus rather than coercion or compromise.
Influence will be based on competence rather than on power. Bennis was a visionary, but Marcousé
et al (2005) caution that the correct management style will depend on factors such as the task, the
people involved and the amount of risk. There is no one style that is always appropriate. The
overriding factor is the context of the business case. They add:
Management style can have a significant impact on the way people work. By adopting the
right approach employees are likely to be more motivated and show greater commitment.
Therefore, effective analysis of leadership should be rooted in the theories of writers such as
Mayo (Page 68) and Herzberg (Page 70).
It may not be easy for managers to change their style. There may be situations in which
managers should be more democratic; this does not necessarily mean they will be. Effective
management training is a useful way to persuade managers to be flexible (see Page 32).
There is some debate about the extent to which you can train people to become effective
managers or leaders. One extreme view is that good managers and leaders are born that way
– if this is true, companies have to put their resources into finding the right sort of person. It
is more likely that a good leader is created by a combination of training and personal
characteristics. This subject is discussed in greater detail beginning on Page 55.
According to Bennis (Marcousé, 2005) most important in
business leadership is the ability to communicate a
vision. This must be accompanied by passion, integrity,
curiosity and daring. Are these inherent or learned
traits? Ruth Tait, a management researcher (Marcousé,
2005) interviewed a series of business leaders and found
it difficult to identify common attributes – except that
many of the executives had some childhood adversity
that seemed to give them their drive. She also found
that while management education was regarded as
helpful it was stressed far less than the learning they
achieved from experience. Although there is always an
argument about whether leaders are born or made, the
idea that leadership is acquired through experience
seems to be gaining favour. This topic is discussed
further in the section on
Developing Leadership
Awareness.

40 | P a g e
v1.2.0 (0821)
© Copyright ISMI Certification Ltd. No unauthorised sharing, copying, reuse in whole or in part,
uploading or webhosting permitted.
Unit 4 – Leadership and Management Core Skills
Kaizen and Contemporary Management
Put simply, the Japanese concept of kaizen means continuous improvement. Even Mark Twain was
aware of kaizen, if not by word by spirit when he said: “Continuous improvement is better than
delayed perfection.” What kaizen implies in practice is that employees should be convinced that they
have two jobs to do. The first is that which is in their job description. The second is to continuously
look for ways to improve it. The concept is rooted in the belief that it is the front-line operative – the
person doing the job – that is really the expert. The last statement shouldn’t come as a surprise. In
Module 3 (Page 37) we studied Katz, who was quite categorical in stating that the further up the
management ladder you ascend, the less of a front-end expert you need to be. As a manager, would
you be confident to allow your staff to post their good ideas on the network? Some companies
encourage just this.
In practice kaizen works best when workers are organised into a cell. The members of the cell are
responsible for the quality of the work emanating from their section. In effect, the cell becomes a
quality circle. Members meet regularly to discuss issues and the circle then puts forward solutions
and recommendations for management to consider.
In order to run a successful kaizen programme, certain elements are regarded as essential:
Workers must feel proud of their contributions. This isn’t about financial reward or “employee
of the month”.
Workers must feel that their contributions are valued. By organising groups into cells this
filters out some of the more bizarre suggestions that are impractical. (At one UK company
over 2,000 kaizen suggestions are implemented each month – Marcousé, 2005).
Performance targets and achievement monitoring improve the process. Targets can be used
to judge whether a kaizen change was successful, and can establish benchmarks.
Managers must be open to suggestions and the organisational culture must be appropriate.
Introducing a kaizen programme into an organisation with a culture where managers tend to
be autocratic or defensive in style will have a negative effect. Changes won’t be implemented
and workers will become resentful.
Care should be taken to educate employees not to use the system as a complaint or
backstabbing opportunity. The more attuned employees are to their organisation’s overall
objectives and the greater the openness of communication, the less likely the outcome will be
negative.

41 | P a g e
v1.2.0 (0821)
© Copyright ISMI Certification Ltd. No unauthorised sharing, copying, reuse in whole or in part,
uploading or webhosting permitted.
Unit 4 – Leadership and Management Core Skills
Administrative Management of People – Appraising
Introduction
A key communication activity essential to successful operational management is appraising. You
should have in mind that one of the outcomes you want to achieve from the appraisal process is to
enhance staff performance. Importantly, it is not an opportunity for discipline or getting back at the
bad employee. Discipline should be carried out promptly and not wait for an appraisal.
Benefits of Appraising
Appraisal is the measurement of performance against performance expectations over time. Benefits
of regular, informal and formal appraisals of staff include the following:
Formally acknowledge and celebrate success, with emphasis on feeding back to the
employee so that he/she is aware of the invaluable contribution that he/she makes.
Clarify the organisation’s objectives and identify any necessary staff development needs to
meet these objectives. This should be accompanied by a plan.
Communicate positive observations by those outside the team (perhaps service users) if
appropriate.
Identify any barriers to effective productivity.
Create closer working relationships and motivate staff
to do their best.
Assess (preferably measure) whether performance
has met expected targets.
Agree key performance indicators (KPIs), operational
targets and individual goals for the subsequent period.
Identify potential for advancement and plot a course
to get there.
Allow staff to raise any concerns, ideas and goals.
Give you an assessment on how they think the operation is going from a front-line
perspective.
Identify areas where there may be some shortcomings in your management.
If you are a Theory Y manager (see Page 59) and believe that most employees want to do a good job,
your staff will value the feedback that you can give them during an appraisal.
Don’t confuse appraisals with:
A chance to discipline.
A lecture to be endured.
A one-way conversation.
A “fight to the finish”.
A chance to “get even”.
Source: The Practical
Supervisor – Appraisal,
Scriptographic

42 | P a g e
v1.2.0 (0821)
© Copyright ISMI Certification Ltd. No unauthorised sharing, copying, reuse in whole or in part,
uploading or webhosting permitted.
Unit 4 – Leadership and Management Core Skills
Performance appraisals should be based, to the extent possible, on metrics. Metrics should be used
for
accuracy and consistency. Accuracy means checking performance against previously agreed goals.
Consistency is ensuring that the measurements used provide a common standard for all employees to
allow for comparison and, if necessary, confidential ranking.
Preparing for Appraisals
Before carrying out appraisals, there are a number of preparatory tasks that you should undertake:
1. Throughout the appraisal interval (usually a year) collect notations and documents that refer
to the employee’s success and shortcomings. This should include copies of any reports from
training courses. Liaise with other colleagues. They may have views on how your employees
perform. This helps reduce bias.
2. Conduct informal progress meetings with employees at 6-month intervals (after 3 months in
the case of new employees). At this point targets and KPIs can be reviewed and guidance can
be offered, or adjustments made, if the employee looks set to miss some of the targets.
3. Ensure that you have dealt with any disciplinary issues, costly mistakes etc as and when they
occurred during the reporting period. The appraisal process isn’t the time to spring surprises.
4. Familiarise yourself with the organisational policies, standards and templates on appraising.
For example, there should be a standard form, and there may be other forms sent out to the
candidate in advance. Be familiar with the procedure for sharing the form with the
interviewee. Some organisations present a draft to the employee at the interview, some a
final, while others use the concept of a working document. Some organisations issue a
questionnaire to the employee before the appraisal and this feeds into the process.
5. HR will be the custodian of the appraisal process, but try to resist insistence that HR carries
out the appraisal interview. This is an essential opportunity for you, the line manager, to
motivate and to get invaluable feedback about the operation. Don’t miss it.
6. Be aware of employment and equal opportunities legislation, and any organisational best
practices on equality and diversity. If you are not, you could easily violate this during the
interview process of the appraisal, and this could have negative repercussions for you if the
appraisal doesn’t go well. Stay objective and try to keep personality, sex, race, religion and
age out of the interview. Discuss disabilities only if they have a direct effect on performance.
7. Familiarise yourself with the employee’s
job description (See Module 3, Page 47). You should
take this into the appraisal. Accept that job functions develop, and there may be a need to
agree changes to the
job description and the related person specification, which outlines the
skills and qualifications necessary to meet the tasks in the
job description. The job description
could form the basis of the appraisal form:
43 | P a g e
v1.2.0 (0821)
© Copyright ISMI Certification Ltd. No unauthorised sharing, copying, reuse in whole or in part,
uploading or webhosting permitted.
Unit 4 – Leadership and Management Core Skills

Task or KPI Objective Level of Achievement Comments

8. Determine who is going to conduct the interview. For front-line officers it should be
supervisors, for supervisors it should be managers etc. But, as a manager, you may wish to sit
in as an observer on a sample of the front-line interviews to benefit from feedback.
9. Plan well in advance. The interview needs to fit the arrangements of the person being
interviewed just as much as the interviewer.
10. Follow up the appraisal with a brief written report to yourself. If you try to commit to memory
you will forget, or your memory will be selective. There may be scope in the appraisal form
for this.
The Appraisal Interview
The following is a list of points that you might find useful when conducting the interview:
The member of staff will be nervous, however well you know each other. Ensure the room
layout and your body language puts them at ease.
Try to ask open questions (questions that don’t have yes or no for the answer). For example:
“To what extent do you think you have achieved your objectives, and what difficulties have
you encountered?” “What tasks do you most enjoy?” Is there any way we could make it
easier for you to achieve the more challenging tasks?”
Don’t talk in terms of “positives” and “negatives”; this can be too personal. Instead talk of
“achievements” and “for improvement”.
Identify and praise strengths. Even if the employee has done nothing more than achieve goals,
indication your appreciation and give thanks.
Don’t be afraid to tackle issues of under-performance, but don’t dwell on criticism, and try to
make the criticism task-specific and not person-specific. Always try to agree a course of
rectifying action. Play to the employee’s potential strengths.
End by giving the employee something to look forward to.
44 | P a g e
v1.2.0 (0821)
© Copyright ISMI Certification Ltd. No unauthorised sharing, copying, reuse in whole or in part,
uploading or webhosting permitted.
Unit 4 – Leadership and Management Core Skills
Administrative Management of People – Promoting
Promotion as a Motivator
Promotion is key to ensuring that staff are sufficiently motivated. Without opportunities for
promotion staff can become apathetic and lack drive. One of the problems with careers in security,
especially at the lower level, is that there are few opportunities for promotion. Many of those entering
security realise this and see it as a temporary job – a resting place until they can find what they see as
a “real” career that offers them opportunities for development. Recent research in the UK would tend
to support this. Gill (2013) carried out a survey of UK security officers which revealed that 50%
envisaged moving out of security guarding within three years. It is down to you to rectify this and
make the job more of a career for front-line staff.
Some more enlightened structures offer several grades of officer at the front-end level, while many
simply apply the traditional, and generally outdated, hierarchical concept of officer/guard, supervisor,
manager. The chance of an officer being promoted to supervisor is often less than 5%, and the chance
of ever reaching manager without moving companies is almost negligible. Just three out of five of
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (see Page 69) are met.
The situation is further exacerbated when a mix of proprietary and contract front line staff are used,
and a two-tier system employed in which contract guards are at the very bottom of the “food chain”.
This is relatively popular, but has negative motivation implications, unless entry-level contract guards
can see a route to being “promoted” onto the proprietary staff.
Promoting from Outside or from Within?
Promotion can be from within the organisation or from outside. The benefits of promoting from
within are:
It offers a progressive career structure for employees, even if it is something as simple as
probationary officer, officer, specialist officer, team leader etc.
It motivates people to work harder.
It is less expensive in terms of training than promoting from outside.
The key benefits of promoting from outside are:
It brings new skills, different work practices and new knowledge to the enterprise.
Newly promoted employees are not compromised by previous working relationships.
Outdated Approaches to Promotion
In traditional, hierarchical systems age comes before ability when staff are selected for promotion (Ali
et al, 2002). Belbin (2010) suggests that during the 19
th Century and into the 20th Century one of the
most favoured differentiators in identifying candidates for promotion was seniority.
Individuals lined up for jobs, responsibility, and promotion in a sequential order where the first to
arrive in service and employment had the highest claim. As the years passed by, the candidates moved

45 | P a g e
v1.2.0 (0821)
© Copyright ISMI Certification Ltd. No unauthorised sharing, copying, reuse in whole or in part,
uploading or webhosting permitted.
Unit 4 – Leadership and Management Core Skills
up a rung on the ladder and occupied positions with the higher status. Often this was seen as a means
of retaining talent. Staff would be compliant and hard working in the hope that when they reached a
certain age, or seniority within the
company, they would be promoted. To a
large extent, this method is still used in the
military to this day, but some police forces
are introducing radical changes to move
away from this structure.
Ask yourself to what extent you still see this
practice i n some front-line security
structures. If you or your contractor are
using it you are not getting the best out of
your team and talent will drain.
Before Selecting Candidates for Promotion
Before selecting candidates for promotion it is important to ensure that the job description and the
person specification for the role are up to date and openly available to interested candidates. These
documents were explained in the previous module.
HR is the lead in issues such as promotion so you should consult with that department on the various
promotion selection options. Is there, for example, a company policy that stipulates that the role
must be advertised outside the company?
Get together with management and HR and try to identify suitable internal candidates whom you can
persuade to put themselves forward for consideration. Sometimes employees don’t see in themselves
the promotion potential that you can see as a manager. In this regard, be careful to identify the right
people. Ali et al (2002), perhaps in an oversimplification, identifies four types of worker:

Will Do; Can’t Do Will Do; Can Do
This is a willing employee who needs
further training and encouragement to
become eligible for promotion.
This kind of candidate shows the necessary
standard of behaviour and performance and
is eligible for consideration for promotion.
Won’t Do; Can’t Do Won’t Do; Can Do
The incompetent employee who is
unwilling to improve. Motivation and
training should be given in the first
instance. If that fails, detailed appraisal
and possibly discharge.
This person is not suited for promotion.
Here the emphasis should be on getting to
the root of the problem and re-motivating.

An everyday example of an outdated promotion
system can be witnessed in a restaurant. There, an
under waiter is ranked below a waiter, who in turn is
less important than a wine waiter, above whom stands
the head waiter. Each job involves different tasks,
performance of which scarcely prepares the jobholder
for the position above. But one unwritten code applies
– no under waiter would ever be appointed who was
older than a head waiter!
Belbin: Team Roles at Work
46 | P a g e
v1.2.0 (0821)
© Copyright ISMI Certification Ltd. No unauthorised sharing, copying, reuse in whole or in part,
uploading or webhosting permitted.
Unit 4 – Leadership and Management Core Skills
Always remember, however, some employees are perfectly competent and confident in their existing
roles and their “Maslow” needs are being met. Take care not to promote those who genuinely don’t
want to be promoted, or you could risk putting them into a situation in which they become
uncomfortable.
Moreover, with promotion often comes a greater emphasis on administrative tasks. Perhaps some
employees are perfectly happy with their areas of specialism, especially if they are in highly specialised
roles such as technology or intelligence. Supervisory roles often put people behind desks, managing
people. This sometimes denies them the thrills associated with some front-line operations.
Selecting Candidates for Promotion
Key criteria for promoting to supervisory roles are:
Does the candidate possess the correct skills and knowledge?
Does the candidate have the right attitude?
Does the candidate have leadership and interpersonal skills and can he/she be relied upon to
be a role model?
Does the candidate seek promotion?
The annual appraisal, ongoing testing and subjective observations can form the basis for answering
the first point, but it may also be a good idea to run “pre-promotion workshops”, together with
examinations – on a voluntary attendance basis. In this way you can learn more about candidates’
potential abilities and candidates can see that there is a fair, objective system.
You should promote the person who best fits the
job description and the person specification,
regardless of age. A recommended method for promoting officers to supervisors can be found in
Module 3, beginning on Page 53.
In any promotion round there will be unsuccessful candidates. Do take the time to let them know why
they were unsuccessful. Perhaps they put themselves forward knowing they didn’t yet possess the
right attributes but simply wanted to demonstrate their desire for advancement, in which case they
would benefit from feedback. You should also ensure that other staff members know the reasons why
the successful candidate was selected.
Once promoted, candidates should be given every assistance to ensure they succeed. This is not just
an issue of training. With promotion come different responsibilities and a different focus, and the
emphasis on interpersonal skills and leadership becomes more important.

47 | P a g e
v1.2.0 (0821)
© Copyright ISMI Certification Ltd. No unauthorised sharing, copying, reuse in whole or in part,
uploading or webhosting permitted.
Unit 4 – Leadership and Management Core Skills
Administrative Management of People – Training
The Benefits of Training
The benefits of training cannot be overstated. Internal training helps employees become better skilled
in their work, achieving quality that is consistent from one task to the next, and uniform across the
organisation. Employees are most productive – and satisfied – when they can use their abilities to the
full. Training helps achieve this.
External training is designed to bring new ideas into the organisation, and to increase efficiency and
effectiveness. Training can take many forms. In Module 3 (Page 58) you were introduced to various
methods for training front-line security operatives.
Specific benefits of training include:
Motivation and reward; the employee feels valued by the organisation.
Enhancing employees’ job satisfaction and team spirit.
Increased quality, efficiency and productivity. Better consistently of service. Activities are
more closely aligned with procedures.
Less time spent fire-fighting and a greater tendency towards awareness and proactivity.
Less conflict in dealing with service users.
Effective change implementation; those affected understand and appreciate the need. Less
resistance to change and more confidence that change can be embraced.
Preparing employees for greater responsibility and promotion.
Reduction of employee turnover, absenteeism and lateness.
Greater sense of pride on the part of the employee at having earned an award.
Internally, training can be delivered by competent supervisors, or team members with specific
aptitude, knowledge and willingness. The supplementary role of trainer can be recognised by the
award of a pay supplement.

48 | P a g e
v1.2.0 (0821)
© Copyright ISMI Certification Ltd. No unauthorised sharing, copying, reuse in whole or in part,
uploading or webhosting permitted.
Unit 4 – Leadership and Management Core Skills
Types of Training
Training includes:

Pre-Appointment
Training
The minimum standard of training or qualification necessary to be selected
for the role. This will be set out either in the
job description or the person
specification
(Module 3, Pages 47-48).
Induction Training Site specific. Focuses on HSE, operation of equipment, site familiarisation
etc.
Ongoing Training To ensure that skills are kept up to date with the organisation’s mission.
This may involve periodic testing and retesting.
Special Skills
Training
Offered to those who are required to perform a specific function (eg. first
aid) or specific equipment, computer programs etc.
Development
Training
Offered to those who indicate potential for advancement.

Planning Considerations
Planning considerations in developing a training programme include:
1.
Setting objectives and means to measure the outcomes of the objectives. Is the training
designed to improve knowledge, skills or behaviour? Will the assessment be individual or
team? What form will the assessment take? Does the chosen assessment form disadvantage
any trainee due to a disability?
2.
Determining the number of employees to be trained. This will influence the style. Six
students is generally regarded as the minimum for the programme to be interactive, with an
upper limit of 16, usually divided into syndicates of 4. If the class size exceeds 16 students,
the training risks becoming a lecture or presentation.
3.
Determining the training environment. On-site where specific equipment is located? In a
fully-equipped classroom? In a hotel meeting room? A hotel meeting room takes students
away from the distractions of work and is appreciated as a form of reward, but such rooms
are designed more for meetings and lectures than training, and invariably don’t have essential
tools such as whiteboards. A flipchart is a great training aid for syndicates to use to express

49 | P a g e
v1.2.0 (0821)
© Copyright ISMI Certification Ltd. No unauthorised sharing, copying, reuse in whole or in part,
uploading or webhosting permitted.
Unit 4 – Leadership and Management Core Skills
their ideas, but barely adequate for a trainer to draw diagrams, flow charts and explain
technical concepts – imagine having gone through school or college without a whiteboard or
blackboard. An on-site fully equipped classroom is much better, but workplace distractions
have to be managed well.
4.
Determining the training method. Confucius (551-479 BC) reminds us: “I hear and I forget
(lecture). I see and I remember (visual aids). I do and I understand (practical exercises)”.
Lecturing is easy to organise, but the results often poor. Practical exercises take significantly
more time and more planning, but the results are usually more satisfactory.
5.
Developing materials. A lot of reliance is placed on PowerPoint. There is nothing wrong with
this as long as the slides aren’t too crowded, the font is at least 18pts, there are no more than
20 slides for each hour of instruction, and the construction isn’t slide after slide of bullet points
to serve as an aid memoire for the presenter. There should be detailed learner handout notes
to support the PowerPoint presentation. Weak, lacking-in-confidence trainers are often
reluctant to offer out handouts until they have “preached their sermons”, presenting the
excuse that if they do hand out in advance the learners will read ahead. Strong, confident
knowledgeable trainers will give handouts in advance of their lesson and encourage learners
to read ahead, because this will help stimulate discussion. They want learners to come to the
session primed by the handouts and already engaged by the subject matter, and eager to go
into more depth.
6.
Assessment and evaluation. Assessment is the means of determining whether the training
has been effective. Most assessment tests knowledge. Better assessment tests ability. You
will experience the latter more and more as we progress through this programme. Evaluation
is the opportunity for the learners to feed back to the trainer on the subject matter, their
assessment of trainer subject-matter knowledge, training style, materials etc.
Records of all training undertaken by your staff should be maintained, usually by HR. These records
will be important in the event of an incident or complaint.
In the case of your own training at management level, it will be important to deliver a return on
investment. This should begin, after the training has been completed, by writing a report to your
management of the positive benefits of the training you have just attended. As a follow up to this,
you should then produce and agree an action plan to determine how you are going to put the benefits
of the training into action to deliver specific outcomes in order to demonstrate return on investment.
Without these two processes, you may find your next request to attend a training course treated with
scepticism.

50 | P a g e
v1.2.0 (0821)
© Copyright ISMI Certification Ltd. No unauthorised sharing, copying, reuse in whole or in part,
uploading or webhosting permitted.
Unit 4 – Leadership and Management Core Skills
Administrative Management of People – Disciplining
Introduction
Discipline is a necessary aspect of managing people. It involves:
Setting behavioural standards.
Communicating to employees the standards and the consequences of non-conformance.
Taking to rectify a situation action when standards are not met.
It is important not to confuse discipline with punishment. They are not the same. The specific purpose
of discipline is to identify what is causing the unacceptable behaviour and to bring the employee back
up to standard. Sometimes this is through a strategy of remedial actions agreed with the employee.
Every individual organisation will have set policies and procedures on discipline and it is important
that these are adhered to. The specific difference between disciplining security staff and the general
workforce, however, is that security staff are placed in a unique position of trust and responsibility,
often charged with upholding standards. When there is a violation of trust, such as unethical or
dishonest behaviour and corruption, discipline should be accompanied by a punishment that is
appropriate to a violation of this higher level of trust.
Possible Causes of Indiscipline
Discipline is as much proactive as it is reactive. A good leader will strive to avoid the
misunderstandings that are often at the root of disciplinary issues. For example:
1. Rules and standards must be communicated. Employees need to know what is expected of
them in terms of conduct, appearance, bearing etc. These can be communicated in induction
briefings, part of an employee’s terms and conditions, and included in a
Security Manual or
handbook. Rules and standards must be both clear and reasonable. Feedback loops to
confirm understanding of written rules should include observation. The best communicator
of standards is example setting.
2. You should get to know team members. What are their goals? How well do they get on with
other team members? Are there any conflicts? What makes them tick as individuals? What
are their dislikes? What challenges do they do well in? Do they have any personal problems
(financial, family, health, addictions etc) and are you approachable if they want to talk through
their problems in confidence? Are they bored or frustrated with their work? You will recall
the brief mention of the worrying finding of the Gill study on Page 44. Is this an image problem
within the sector? Do they see guarding as a dead-end or low-status job and does this lead to
less pride in the job and discipline problems?

51 | P a g e
v1.2.0 (0821)
© Copyright ISMI Certification Ltd. No unauthorised sharing, copying, reuse in whole or in part,
uploading or webhosting permitted.
Unit 4 – Leadership and Management Core Skills
3. You should make sure employees are properly trained for their work. Lack of adequate
training leads to confusion, inconsistency and shortcuts.
4. The most effective kind of discipline is self-discipline. With good leadership you can build a
sense of pride and achievement. For example, you should correct immediately the behaviour
of any subordinate supervisor who doesn’t lead by example. Good self-discipline is infectious;
but so is bad.
5. Rules and standards must be consistent and you must be seen to be fair. You must apply them
consistently from one day to the next, and from one person to another. The only exception
to this is when an employee repeatedly commits acts of indiscipline, such as persistent
lateness. Here you may have to resort to progressively stricter discipline. An example of
inconsistency is when employees have received minor punishments for specific persistent acts
and the frustrated line manager sends out a warning that the next person to commit this
infraction will be dealt with most severely. The line manager should have applied the correct
punishment from the outset.
Types of Discipline
There are various levels of discipline. The precise procedure will be set out by HR, where records of
discipline will be retained on employee files. An example discipline scale is presented below:

Description Remarks
Individual
Correction
This is the most basic form of
discipline. The employee is verbally
corrected and no further action is
required.
This is a line manager prerogative and so there is
no need to involve HR. This should be done as a
private interview. There may, however, be
circumstances where an immediate, on-the-spot,
correction is required.
Group
Correction
This carries the same “weight” as the
individual correction, but is often
communicated in writing, with a
warning of the consequences of non
compliance.
This is a line manager prerogative and so there is
no need to involve HR. The correction should not
be posted on notices in sight of non-team
members. The security log book or a temporary
instructions book is a good place. It could also be
delivered at a meeting.
Verbal
Warning
This is considered a serious
disciplinary action for serious or
repetitive acts, or when other
disciplinary approaches have been
ineffective.
Verbal warnings should involve HR participation,
and are recorded on the employee’s file. This is
often the first step in a formal disciplinary
procedure.

52 | P a g e
v1.2.0 (0821)
© Copyright ISMI Certification Ltd. No unauthorised sharing, copying, reuse in whole or in part,
uploading or webhosting permitted.
Unit 4 – Leadership and Management Core Skills

Written
Warning
This is the most serious disciplinary
action, short of dismissal. It is used
for serious acts of misconduct, or
when other disciplinary approaches
have been ineffective.
Written warnings should involve HR participation.
There will be a set procedure, and likely an appeals
procedure also. You will need to ensure that your
evidence is good. There may be provision for a
first verbal warning and final verbal warning.
Dismissal An absolute last resort, or when the
offence is so serious as to warrant
immediate dismissal.
HR will take the lead in this matter. It must be
handled very carefully so that if the person levels a
charge of unfair dismissal it can be defended. It
may be preceded by suspension. In many
instances, organisations choose to ask the
employee to resign, and agree that neither party
will make critical statements or allegations against
each other.

Discipline and the Level of Proof
Discipline may be applied on the basis of “balance of probabilities” (US: “preponderance of evidence),
which means the person is more likely to be guilty than not guilty, but it is recommended that you try
to prove the indiscipline to the level of “beyond reasonable doubt”. The latter should especially be
the case when dealing with hearsay, allegations or anonymous reports.
Other approaches include:
Suspension – perhaps while a case is investigated or allegations proved or disproved.
Restitution – an order to pay back any losses incurred as a result of theft.
Guidelines for Good Discipline
The following general guidelines provide a basis for the disciplinary process:
1. Deal with problems as soon as possible so that:
a. They don’t reach the very time-consuming serious discipline stage.
b. You don’t send the message that bad conduct will be tolerated.
c. Better-behaved employees don’t become resentful that rules are being applied
selectively.

53 | P a g e
v1.2.0 (0821)
© Copyright ISMI Certification Ltd. No unauthorised sharing, copying, reuse in whole or in part,
uploading or webhosting permitted.
Unit 4 – Leadership and Management Core Skills
2. Notwithstanding #1, don’t discipline until you are calm. Certain actions may leave you very
annoyed. In such cases it is best to wait a few hours, or perhaps a day. In the interim you can
quietly gather information on the issue.
3. Determine the level of discipline required. For this you may have to consult with HR. If, after
consultation, you feel that you need to go straight to a more serious level of discipline, ensure
you read organisational procedures regarding any right that the employee may have to
representation or witnesses during interview.
4. As part of your consultation with HR, try to establish if the employee has a record of such
infractions. If you are new to the role, this may be difficult to establish if your predecessor
always used non-recorded corrective methods.
5. Remember the goal – to get the employee back to acceptable standards of behaviour and not
to punish, unless the infraction is of a very serious nature that may require dismissal. And
focus on the act rather than the person. It is much better to say:
“Your behaviour falls below
the expected ethical standards of your position,”
rather than: “You are unethical.” The latter
judgement is much more likely to be contested as it is a personal attack.
6. Choose a place and time to discipline that has privacy and which won’t humiliate the
employee. If your office has glass sides, it is not good practice to call in employees and have
them stand in front of your desk and listen to you rant.
7. Make the employee aware of the process. Explain issues such as confidentiality, record
keeping, under what circumstances the matter will be referred to HR, the next stage of
discipline if this fails etc.
8. Ensure that the disciplinary interview is a two-way process. The employee has a right to
present his or her side of the story, and new information may even come to light. Remember,
your aims are to:
a. Get to the root of the problem. Is there an underlying issue such as resentment, a
domestic issue, bullying at work, a workplace affair, lack of training, job
dissatisfaction, boredom, inability to cope with change etc?
b. Agree with the employee a course of action (and target dates if appropriate) to rectify
this issue and hopefully prevent reoccurrence of the negative action or unacceptable
behaviour. Ensure the employee is made aware of what will happen next if the
improvement is not made.
9. Know your limits. If the underlying causes of the problem are personal in nature the employee
may require help from a professional in the Employee Assistance Programme. Don’t become
an armchair counsellor and take great care when using your worldly experience to give advice
on how to handle personal problems outside the workplace.

54 | P a g e
v1.2.0 (0821)
© Copyright ISMI Certification Ltd. No unauthorised sharing, copying, reuse in whole or in part,
uploading or webhosting permitted.
Unit 4 – Leadership and Management Core Skills
10. Try to begin your questions with what, where, when, who, how. If possible, avoid the
temptation to begin questions with
why, especially in the early phases of the interview, as this
may put the employee on the defensive from the outset.
11. Even if the level of discipline means that there is no requirement to involve HR in the process,
document everything and store it on your computer, in a password-protected file. In the case
of serious discipline your organisational procedures may require you to share certain
documentation with the employee.
12. Once the situation has improved, choose a time to quietly offer praise and encouragement to
the employee.
Common Discipline Problems Involving Security Officers
Recently, members of a LinkedIn forum were asked what, in their experiences, were the most common
disciplinary infractions committed by security officers. Given the special status of trust and
responsibility that security officers hold, the responses were disturbing:
Lying.
Theft.
Sleeping.
Lateness.
Gambling.
Bad attitude.
Falsifications.
Complacency.
Lack of interest.
Time-card fraud.
Poor log keeping.
Sexual harassment.
Uniform infractions.
Eliminating evidence.
Rudeness to customers.
Unauthorised absences.
Arrogance and lack of respect.
Inappropriate handling of alarms.
Drunkenness and substance abuse.
Failure to follow orders/instructions.
Responding badly to corrective actions.
Preoccupation with cell phones and social media.
Failure to accept “ownership” of task responsibility.
55 | P a g e
v1.2.0 (0821)
© Copyright ISMI Certification Ltd. No unauthorised sharing, copying, reuse in whole or in part,
uploading or webhosting permitted.
Unit 4 – Leadership and Management Core Skills
Developing Leadership Awareness
Where Do Leaders Come From?
There are strong views on whether leaders are born or created. It is certainly the case that leaders
often don’t emerge until there is a situation that requires leadership. But have those traits been latent
since birth? We can all remember people at school who were attractive, charismatic and who had
many admirers and followers. Perhaps you were one. Was this synonymous with inherent leadership
ability?
Trait theory (Allport, 1937) suggests that leaders are born rather than developed, implying that leaders
have an innate superiority that makes them naturally predisposed to positions of importance and
power. Traits include charisma, courage and intelligence. Kotter (1999) rejects the notion that
leadership has to do with charisma. This is an unsurprising viewpoint since Kotter is an author of selfdevelopment books on leadership. “Leaders are readers” is one mantra. Inborn traits can also be
negative and will undermine any effort at good leadership. These include stubbornness, deceit,
malice, indiscretion and indecision.
As is the case with many extreme viewpoints the answer probably lies somewhere between the two
positions. There are certainly natural leaders who have never formally studied leadership, just as
there are naturally talented footballers or recording artists. But mediocre footballers can become
good footballers through training, and naturally talented recording artists can become great recording
artists through formally developing their craft. The same is true for leadership. Lussier and Achua
(2010) support this contention, adding that effective leaders are simply not born or made. They are
born with some leadership ability and then they develop it.
According to Bennis (Marcousé, 2005) the most important ingredient of a business leader is the ability
to provide and communicate a vision. This must be accompanied by passion, integrity, curiosity and
daring. But again, the question that arises is whether these inherent or learned traits. You will recall
from earlier that Ruth Tait, a management researcher (Marcousé, 2005) interviewed a series of
business leaders and found it difficult to identify common attributes – except that many of the
executives had some childhood adversity that
seemed to give them their drive.
A recent post on the LinkedIn Corporate Security
Management forum sought out advice on how to
become an effective leader. Unbeknown to the
respondents, the original question was less intended
to identify good leadership traits (these are well
documented in thousands of reference books) and
more to gauge the extent that the question excited
Leadership is about being comfortable
putting yourself out in front, wanting to
make a difference and having some
answers about how you do that. It is
not about organising your own diary or
typing up memos.
Spurgeon (2007)
56 | P a g e
v1.2.0 (0821)
© Copyright ISMI Certification Ltd. No unauthorised sharing, copying, reuse in whole or in part,
uploading or webhosting permitted.
Unit 4 – Leadership and Management Core Skills
the egos of the forum members. Needless to say, the question generated a very large number of
responses. Most of us, it seems, believe we have great leadership skills and that we have pearls of
leadership wisdom to share with others. This experiment was followed by a second, which asked
members to identify their experiences working for bad leaders. Rather unsurprisingly, this too
generated a similar number of responses. It seems we have all worked for managers whose leadership
skills are less well developed than our own. Or does it? What would those managers have posted on
LinkedIn if they too had been asked about the positive traits of leadership?
Don’t Try to Put Square Pegs into Round Holes – Managers versus Leaders
An important point to make at the outset is that not everybody wants to be a leader. Recently, a proof
reader was asked how she was getting on proof-reading a new classroom training module on
Leadership, Management and Motivation, written by two very successful leaders, one from a senior
police background and the other from a senior military background. She replied that the proofing was
difficult because leadership is a boring subject and she had a tendency as a result to speed read!
Despite the fact that this employee is highly competent in her role, she has no aspiration to lead. She,
like very many competent employees, is happy being a follower. It is important that we promote to
leadership positions only those who have the appropriate aspiration and desire, and recognise that
many employees are content at not being out in front leading.
The fact is that organisations generally appoint “managers” rather than “leaders”. Many managerial
selection processes fail to test for leadership ability, or attempt to do it via a questionnaire. The role
of a manager is to bring together material resources, know-how, time and manpower to meet the
organisational goals – this usually involves a product as the output. Leadership is different. Roberts
(2013) adds that the classic or stereotypical view is that a manager is primarily administrative, working
to short term objectives within current systems and structures. The focus is on making the existing
arrangements efficient. The manager gets things done by other people because of his or her position.
Leadership is often taken for granted, but leadership ability is rarely measured by anything other than
a subjective assessment when managers are appointed to positions of responsibility over other
employees.
A basic definition of leadership is provided by Lussier and Achua (2010):
“The influencing process of leaders and followers to achieve organisational objectives through
change.”
Lussier and Achua (2010) expand on this definition by saying that influencing is the process of a leader
communicating ideas, gaining acceptance of them, and motivating followers to support and
implement the ideas through change. When this goes well, the good leader is rewarded with a sense
of fulfilment and the better, more tuned-in leader senses a corresponding level of personal
satisfaction from the team. Change is more difficult and is often fraught with problems. This can
make the position of leadership, at times, very lonely, exposed and very isolated. This is especially
the case when a business has hired in a leader from a uniformed services background specifically to

57 | P a g e
v1.2.0 (0821)
© Copyright ISMI Certification Ltd. No unauthorised sharing, copying, reuse in whole or in part,
uploading or webhosting permitted.
Unit 4 – Leadership and Management Core Skills
instigate change. In such extreme cases, often only those with the most exceptional leadership skills
– or the very lucky – survive.
This view holds that a leader takes a longer term perspective and seeks to initiate change for the
better, to interest and inspire people to commit to a vision of what could be, rather than what is. The
leader gets things done willingly and with good spirit by other people.
The two functions of management and leadership complement each other. They may vary in emphasis
but are more or less appropriate at different times depending on the circumstances. Leadership is
often viewed as that aspect of management that can be applied to get better performance out of the
manpower element of the mix. In this regard leadership is very similar to motivating, although
leadership is a broader concept.
Think about the underlying reasons of the following sayings:
Managers have subordinates
Leaders have followers.
Managers work for money Leaders work for excitement.
Managers seek results Leaders seek achievement.
Managers have objectives
Leaders create vision.
Managers tell people what to do
Leaders sell ideas.
Managers seek stability
Leaders seek innovation and change.
Managers are risk averse Leaders embrace risk.
Managers take credit
Leaders give credit.
Managers do things right
Leaders do the right thing.
Managers have formal authority
Leaders sometimes don’t.
Managers have conscripts
Leaders are inspirational.
Managers tell people what to do
Leaders have volunteers.
Managers apportion blame
Leaders give credit and accept blame.
Managers do
Leaders facilitate.
Managers rely on formal authority Leaders rely on motivation and persuasion.
Managers appeal to the head Leaders appeal to the heart.

58 | P a g e approachability, encouraging
questioning and promoting

v1.2.0 (0821)
© Copyright ISMI Certification Ltd. No unauthorised sharing, copying, reuse in whole or in part,
uploading or webhosting permitted.
Unit 4 – Leadership and Management Core Skills
Perhaps some statements are a little extreme and others are open to misinterpretation, but
collectively they help distinguish between the roles of management and leadership.
Fayol’s Advice to Managers Aspiring to Become Leaders
Fayol (discussed earlier) has the following leadership advice for managers, most of which with a little
modification is still applicable today:
Know your employees – this covers the full spectrum, including understanding their likes and desires,
what motivates them to work, their strengths and weaknesses and how to make them part of the
team.
Provide unity of direction and focus of effort – by setting clear targets, roles and responsibilities and
ensuring synergy between different groups.
Eliminating the incompetent – this applies both to personnel and processes.
Don’t become engrossed in detail – this allows the leader to take a step back and look at the big
picture. This “helicopter view” enables a more strategic view to be formed and allows subordinates to
do their own jobs, without interference.
Understanding agreements – this relates to ensuring that the work produced meets the standards of
the work required.
Foster unity, energy, initiative and loyalty – this concerns the requirement to work as a team to
produce coherence and, again, synergy.
Example setting – this refers to the key role of the leader in role-modelling behaviour (further
discussed on Page 60).
Auditing – this relates to checking that the processes required have been completed to the correct
standard and the preparation completed for the next phase.
Transforming Leadership
Transformational (leadership focussed) approaches to managing people can be contrasted with
transactional (management focussed) approaches, as follows (Chambers, 2007):
transactional
transformational
‘Servant leader’ concept.
Task focused and reliant on
hierarchy. Rewards in
exchange for performance.
Largely operational not
strategic.
Incentive-based exchange
between the leader and follower
in return for enhanced
performance. Leader unifies
followers through shared vision,
trust and common values –
based on ‘empowerment’.
Leaders show concern for others,
change etc.

59 | P a g e
v1.2.0 (0821)
© Copyright ISMI Certification Ltd. No unauthorised sharing, copying, reuse in whole or in part,
uploading or webhosting permitted.
Unit 4 – Leadership and Management Core Skills
Burns (en.wikipedia.org) argues that transformational leadership enhances the motivation, morale,
and performance of followers through a variety of mechanisms. These include:
Connecting the follower’s sense of identity and self to the task and the collective identity of
the organisation.
Being a role model for followers that inspires them and makes them interested.
Challenging followers to take greater ownership for their work.
Understanding the strengths and weaknesses of followers, so the leader can align followers
with tasks that enhance their performance.
Leadership requires taking a more enlightened view of management. There is no doubt that
enlightened views to management have been around probably since the beginnings of organised
society, but it was teacher, researcher and consultant Douglas McGregor who is credited with first
dividing managers into two groups, which he labelled
Theory X and Theory Y.
Theory X managers are essentially not leaders. They believe that the average employee:
Has an inherent dislike of work and tries to avoid it.
Must be coerced, threatened or closely controlled to get them to work.
Avoids responsibility and has little ambition.
Theory Y managers are better leaders. They believe that the average employee:
Considers work is as natural as play and rest. The average person embraces work and seeks
responsibility.
If committed, will perform with little supervision.
Is by nature imaginative and creative and has great potential.
This classification is perhaps a little too simplistic because every experienced manager can probably
identify employees that would require Theory X management, but the underlying message is that with
good leadership the relationship will move much closer to Theory Y than Theory X, and as a result all
parties are satisfied.

60 | P a g e
v1.2.0 (0821)
© Copyright ISMI Certification Ltd. No unauthorised sharing, copying, reuse in whole or in part,
uploading or webhosting permitted.
Unit 4 – Leadership and Management Core Skills
Establishing Yourself as a Role Model
Spurgeon (2007) presents two specific questions that can be used to define a leader. The first is “who
are leaders?” and the second is “what do leaders do?” Spurgeon argues that the former approach
leads to an unending series of personal qualities that very few people can aspire to. What leaders do
and how they do it is far more relevant.
A key criterion in becoming an effective leader is to earn respect. Fundamental to earning respect is
becoming a role model, a point identified by Burns (en.wikipedia.org). Team members will naturally
look to the leader to see how he or she behaves, but this is more than just setting a good example.
An essential function of a role model is to provide an aspiration – a model for others to aim for.
Security officers who see in their security manager great qualities of leadership and example setting
may aspire to reach that position and this will hopefully be reflected in their performance.
Bad behaviour on the part of management will be reflected in the behaviour of front-line staff. Studies
have found time and time again that in organisations where management behaves unethically, levels
of employee-perpetrated crime are higher. But where management leads by example and employees
are well socialised, misbehaviour is reduced. There is an old Russian proverb that says “
a fish rots
from the head
”!
Being a good role model involves a range of behaviours, beginning with practicing the qualities of
being a good security manager. This includes adherence to the ISMI Ethical Code on Page 33 of
Module 3, and the key qualities of the security manager that follow on Page 34. Timekeeping,
trustworthiness, honesty, integrity, fairness in dealing with others, use of company property are just
some of many examples.
The motto of the British Army’s Royal Military Police is “Exemplo Ducemus”, Latin for “By example we
lead”. This would be an appropriate motto not just for security managers but for the security
department as a whole.
Some key elements of being a good role model, in addition to the points discussed already, are:
1. Ensuring your actions are consistent with your words. The phrase “Do as I say, and not as I
do” has no place here.
2. Embracing the best principles of fairness, equality of treatment, diversity and human rights.
3. Dealing immediately and decisively with discrimination, bullying or harassment in any form.
4. Avoiding favouritism and gossip.
5. Problem solving. Staff will look to you to help them solve their issues.
6. Looking to the team for answers rather than always providing them yourself.

61 | P a g e
v1.2.0 (0821)
© Copyright ISMI Certification Ltd. No unauthorised sharing, copying, reuse in whole or in part,
uploading or webhosting permitted.
Unit 4 – Leadership and Management Core Skills
7. Looking at processes and learning from experience to improve them for the future, before
leaping to blame individuals.
8. Accepting responsibility when things go wrong.
9. Not publicly humiliating team members when things go wrong or complaints are received,
but where there are grounds for complaint against the team, dealing with the matter
robustly and decisively, in private.
10. Being non-critical of management when in the presence of subordinate team members. If
you have an issue with management, live with it or have the courage to take it to
management directly.
11. Humility and recognising when you have made a bad decision. We all make them.
12. Not sitting back while the team is working on tasks. The leader should have specific tasks to
complete. The leader is also a member of the team.
13. Being ready to work with any member that needs help. Mentoring and training on the job
where possible.
14. Always ensuring that credit is shared for team success. Follow the mantra “Take the blame,
but share the credit.”
15. Communicating openly and honestly, and encouraging such communication in the team.

62 | P a g e
v1.2.0 (0821)
© Copyright ISMI Certification Ltd. No unauthorised sharing, copying, reuse in whole or in part,
uploading or webhosting permitted.
Unit 4 – Leadership and Management Core Skills
Managing Teams and Teamwork
Introduction
Teamwork is an efficient means of working.
Belbin (2010) argues that advanced teamwork is
one of the most efficient ways we know of
accomplishing complex tasks and missions. Not
all tasks are suited to teamwork. Some just
require coordination, but there are specific tasks
(such as surgery in a hospital) that could not
otherwise be completed, or not completed as
well, unless carried out by teamwork.
Some teams are permanent, such as a team
working in an intelligence cell. Others may be
temporary and part time, such as a project team
overseeing the installation of a major physical
security project.
The Factors that Characterise Teams
We can differentiate between teamwork and other styles of working in that teams:
Depend on each other; every team member has a critical role to play.
Have a combined output that is greater than the sum of the constituent parts.
Depend on open and honest communication.
Are willing to work together in a coordinated manner. Cooperation and camaraderie are
key.
Ensure that members have open access to information to ensure that decisions are made on
the basis of all available facts, and not speculation.
Have a common commitment to a mutually agreed goal or vision, for which the team holds
itself responsible. Members will have clear, challenging objectives and an understanding of
how to reach this goal.
Are energised by team spirit – a very powerful form of collective motivation.
Have a relatively flat structure. There is no strict hierarchy or concentration of power, but
there are different levels of responsibility.
The word team is often used loosely. The
entire workforce of a company is often
referred to as a team but in the technical
sense this is not so. A team is not just any
group working together. Committees,
councils and task forces are working groups.
Working groups are necessary and effective,
and many of their values and methods are
the same as those of teams, but that does
not make them teams. They come together
to share information, perspectives and
insights and to make decisions.
Jones (2003)
63 | P a g e
v1.2.0 (0821)
© Copyright ISMI Certification Ltd. No unauthorised sharing, copying, reuse in whole or in part,
uploading or webhosting permitted.
Unit 4 – Leadership and Management Core Skills
Have a balanced composition. People within it have complementary skills and personality
types, and fulfil different roles. The right people will be assigned to the right roles. Good
teams embrace diversity. Teams that are clones of the team leader are often not successful.
Teams are important to employees because they:
Achieve what might not be possible working alone or in a more loosely coordinated body.
Satisfy employees’ social needs and provide a sense of belonging (See Maslow, Page 69).
Provide a chance for employees to learn from each other.
Create the conditions for creativity, sometimes dynamic.
Breed enthusiasm and optimism. Optimism is a very potent force.
Create the conditions for shared problem solving.
Encourage open communication, irrespective of “rank” within the organisation.
Team Composition
West (2012) emphasises the need to have a real team whose membership is clear, which is of the right
size, relatively stable in membership and working on a task that requires teamwork. Views differ about
the right size for a team, and will relate directly to the task, but there is some consensus that a
membership of around 4-8 is effective for many tasks. When teams exceed 10 persons, problems with
span of control may be manifest.
Woods (1997) suggests the following skill sets as necessary components of a team:
Functional/Technical Skills – The ability to do the job.
Interpersonal Skills – The ability to work harmoniously with a diverse set of people.
Problem-Solving Skills – Overcoming problems is a key part of teamwork.
Decision-Making Skills – This implies group decision-making skills whereby options are
identified and consensus reached.
Team Effectiveness Model
West (2012) presents a five-component model for team effectiveness:

1. Task Effectiveness The extent to which the team is successful in achieving its task
related objectives.
2. Team Member Well
Being
Factors such as the well-being or mental health (e.g., stress),
growth and development of team members.

64 | P a g e
v1.2.0 (0821)
© Copyright ISMI Certification Ltd. No unauthorised sharing, copying, reuse in whole or in part,
uploading or webhosting permitted.
Unit 4 – Leadership and Management Core Skills

3. Team Viability The likelihood that a team will continue to work.
4. Team Innovation The extent to which the team develops and implements new and
improved processes, products and procedures.
5. Inter-Team Cooperation The effectiveness of the team in working with other teams in the
organisation with which it has to work in order to deliver
products or services.

Team Leadership
Teams require good leadership. Leadership is designed
to bring out the best in a team. Leadership may be
exercised from within the team (for example, a football
team captain) or from a managerial position above the
team (for example, a football team manager), or a
combination of these.
Woods (1997) stresses that the team leader is not the
“boss”. A team leader doesn’t tell others what to do, but through his or her position in the
organisation helps set the direction for the team and provide the resources. Rather than use power,
the team leader should
empower. Importantly, the team leader should be a role model for other
members.
The Stages of Team Evolution
A good team leader will understand and manage carefully the evolutionally stages of team
development, which can be broken down into:
Forming – The team is established and members begin to get to know one another as
team members. At this stage some members may be nervous and talkative, while others
quiet and contemplating. There will be a high degree of dependency on the leader until
team members are sure of the objectives and of their own positions within the team.
Dominant personalities will emerge, but care should be taken not to automatically assume
that dominant personalities are good leaders or the most competent team members.
Storming – It takes a while for interpersonal relations to develop, and there may be some
nervousness and tension as progress isn’t as rapid as anticipated. There may also be
Good teamwork can be measured
by the relationship between the
leader and the rest of the team. Do
team members feel free to go to
and confide in the leader?
Jones (2003)
65 | P a g e
v1.2.0 (0821)
© Copyright ISMI Certification Ltd. No unauthorised sharing, copying, reuse in whole or in part,
uploading or webhosting permitted.
Unit 4 – Leadership and Management Core Skills
certain personalities who will try to force their opinions and will on the whole group,
rather than listening. It takes a while for people with diverse skill sets and backgrounds
to work as one harmonious, highly productive team. Here the leader’s interpersonal skills
are in greatest demand.
Norming – In this stage individual differences are reconciled and roles, group norms and
expectations become fully understood. There is measureable progress towards team
objectives as people begin to learn from each other and combine skills to produce
dynamic output. It is at this time that the leader first sees that the sum of the output is
greater than the constituent parts.
Performing – The team reaches the stage of open communication, great efficiency, and
strong output. Often, the level of interaction is so smooth that little needs to be said and
there is minimal directing and control. Strengths and weaknesses are understood, and
the team functions as a cohesive whole. There is natural interdependency and great
synergy.
The Two Dimensions of Team Needs
A good team leader will understand what makes each team member “tick”. Some people are
motivated by a task for its own sake – they simply enjoy doing it. For example in a laundry, some
people find ironing therapeutic! Other people are motivated by a challenge. By understanding the
What if the team never gets to the performing stage?
Bad teams are characterised by:
Confusion and lack of vision.
Lack of clarity of objectives.
Too much similarity of team members, thereby stifling creativity.
Inappropriate mix of skills or bad balance. If everyone is alike there will be blind
spots.
Lack of shared values and lack of commitment.
Conflict – perhaps one member is a bad fit.
Excessive rivalry and back-stabbing.
Excessive gossip and criticism.
Fortress mentality and resistance to outside help.
Lack of trust and lack of confidence.
Domination by one team member to the detriment of others.
66 | P a g e
v1.2.0 (0821)
© Copyright ISMI Certification Ltd. No unauthorised sharing, copying, reuse in whole or in part,
uploading or webhosting permitted.
Unit 4 – Leadership and Management Core Skills
individual personalities of your team members you will be better placed to allocate tasks
appropriately. Team members will respond differently to stress also.
West (2012) emphasises the need for successful team leaders
to recognise the two fundamental dimensions of team
functioning: the
task the team is required to carry out, and
the
social factors that influence how members work together
as a social unit. The team leader that ignores the second
dimension does so at his/her peril. It is therefore important
that when selecting members for a team the
subjective as well
as
objective fit be considered. In the industrial age, Belbin
(2010) argues, qualification was the key selection criterion.
As we move into the post-industrial age personal orientation
also becomes a key determinant of team success.
Fostering good social factors is less about meeting out of work for a meal or drink, and more about
creating enjoyment and satisfaction in the work, and the leader maintaining a positive outlook.
Research evidence now shows convincingly how important positive emotions, such as hope, pleasure,
happiness, humour, excitement, joy, pride, optimism and involvement are as a source of human
strength (Fredrickson, 2009). When a team feels positive emotions they think in a more flexible, openminded way, and consider a much wider range of possibilities than if they feel anxious, depressed or
angry. They are also more likely to see challenges as opportunities rather than threats (West, 2012).
Team Leader Qualities
Wood (1997) summarises good team leader qualities as follows:
Serves as a role model to team members.
Motivates members through vision, inspiration, confidence and positive energy.
Empowers rather than uses power.
Understands that teamwork is not the traditional superior-subordinate relationship.
Shares responsibility and decision making where appropriate.
Looks at the team to give answers rather than giving the team answers.
Tries to avoid blaming individual team members, but instead looks for shortcomings in
processes.
Gets involved in tasks. The leaders should be seen to have tasks to do, and not to sit around
supervising.
Be ready to serve in the capacity of helper to any team member needing help.
Shares credit for team success with the entire team.
The idea that we can create
effective teams by focusing
simply on performance and
ignoring the role of our
emotions is based on the false
premise that emotions can be
ignored at work.
West (2012)
67 | P a g e
v1.2.0 (0821)
© Copyright ISMI Certification Ltd. No unauthorised sharing, copying, reuse in whole or in part,
uploading or webhosting permitted.
Unit 4 – Leadership and Management Core Skills
Encourages open and honest communication.
Encourages creativity and tolerates mistakes. Creativity is powerful. In a team setting
different personalities will spark one another off into new ways of thinking and acting, and
this will generate enthusiasm.
All of the qualities of good leadership discussed elsewhere in this module (such as trust, respect,
fairness, consistency, sincerity, enabling, delegating etc) are relevant here.

68 | P a g e
v1.2.0 (0821)
© Copyright ISMI Certification Ltd. No unauthorised sharing, copying, reuse in whole or in part,
uploading or webhosting permitted.
Unit 4 – Leadership and Management Core Skills
Motivating
Introduction – Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation
Lussier and Achua (2010) define motivation as anything that affects behaviour pursuing a certain
outcome. Bartol and Martin (1998) assign a more specifically positive attribute to motivation: The
force that energises behaviour, gives direction to behaviour, and underlies the tendency to persist.
While Greenberg and Baron (1997) define motivation as the set of processes that arouse, direct, and
maintain human behaviour toward attaining some goal. In sum, motivation is the art of getting
employees to share in your enthusiasm and commitment to achieve organisational goals. Motivation
is inextricably linked with job satisfaction.
Motivation can be:
Extrinsic – You provide tangible rewards for performance, or sanctions for
underperformance. This is undesirable. It is short-term and can damage team cohesion.
Intrinsic – Refers to motivation that is driven by an interest or enjoyment in the task itself,
and exists within the individual, rather than relying on any external pressure. Intrinsic
motivation is based on taking pleasure in an activity rather than working towards an
external, personal-economic reward.
With good leadership, support and guidance, a team moves quickly from extrinsic motivation to
intrinsic motivation.
The outdated “economic self-interest” motivational approach of Taylor (Marcousé, 2005) has been
discussed earlier. Perhaps it is premature to dismiss it out of hand, however. In many poorer countries
of the world economic self-interest can be a powerful force, especially when employment is scarce.
Mayo and the Hawthorne Effect
Mayo (Marcousé, 2005) was more interested than Taylor in the deeper psychological reasons that
motivated workers, and fundamental to his beliefs are the results of research he carried out on
assembly lines at a factory in Chicago in the 1930’s. These can be summarised as:
Workers gained satisfaction from the freedom and control over their working environment.
This could be very simple things such as choice over lighting levels. Could we draw lessons
from this today, for example by allowing the workers to choose themselves what equipment
is installed in their rest rooms?
On production lines teams work better than individuals. Productivity is energised by team
spirit.

69 | P a g e
v1.2.0 (0821)
© Copyright ISMI Certification Ltd. No unauthorised sharing, copying, reuse in whole or in part,
uploading or webhosting permitted.
Unit 4 – Leadership and Management Core Skills
Group norms (expectations of each other) are crucial and may be influenced more by
informal than official group leaders. Does this tell us something about the way we select
leaders?
Communication between workers and managers and worker-to-worker influences morale
and output.
Workers are affected by the degree of interest shown in them by their managers; the
influence of this upon motivation is called “the Hawthorne Effect” (named after the factory
in which the research took place).
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Two of the foremost theories on motivation are that of Maslow (1943) and Herzberg (1987). Maslow
developed his “hierarchy of needs” theory, which suggests that employees are motivated though five
levels of needs. It is shaped as a pyramid to emphasise that while every employee has the lower-level
set of needs, not every employee shares the needs of successive ascending levels. Each lower level of
needs must be met before motivation can progress to the next ascending level.
1. Physiological Needs – Primary or basic needs, including food, shelter and clothing. Intrinsic in this
is having the means to provide (ie a job). Basic
needs (according to Lussier and Achua, 2010) also
extend to adequate salary, breaks and working
conditions.
2. Safety or Security Needs – Most importantly, this
addresses job security. When this is threatened (for
example fear of impending redundancies),
motivation goes into turmoil. Lussier and Achua
(2010) also identify medical insurance and pensions
as part of this need set.
3. Social Needs – Human beings are a social species with an inherent need to belong. We all have an
affiliation to something (national identity, religion, football team etc). Social interaction is important
in the workplace, and good working relationships and stable teams often form the basis for this
interaction. In this regard, swapping around shift composition for a reason not appreciated by those
affected can have a detrimental effect, for example.
4. Esteem Needs – For higher levels of management this may be about ego and prestige. For the
majority of employees this relates to job satisfaction, appreciation and recognition, challenging tasks,
task diversification, participation in decision making, opportunities for advancement etc. A good
leader is cognisant of the latter set of motivators and practices them.
5. Self-Actualisation Needs – These needs are about growth and achievement so that all employees
can reach their full potential. Creativity is encouraged, skills are developed often to beyond

70 | P a g e
v1.2.0 (0821)
© Copyright ISMI Certification Ltd. No unauthorised sharing, copying, reuse in whole or in part,
uploading or webhosting permitted.
Unit 4 – Leadership and Management Core Skills
employees’ own expectations of themselves, and employees feel they have achieved their correct
professional level.
Herzberg’s Two-Dimensional Theory of Motivation
Frederick Herzberg, a psychologist like Maslow, disagreed with the assumption that satisfaction and
dissatisfaction were at opposite ends of one continuum (Lussier and Achua, 2010) and proposed that
before motivation can be achieved, the factors that demotivate must first be addressed.
His two-factor theory on motivation suggests that “hygiene factors” (demotivating factors) are distinct
from “motivation factors”. Hygiene factors, indicated on the left of the diagram below, relate to
working conditions. If hygiene factors are poor, it follows that an employee’s performance may be
poor. However, even if the hygiene factors are improved, it is not guaranteed that an employee’s
performance will improve. If pay, conditions, relationships and job status improve the employee will
be happier at work and job satisfaction will be improved but performance and output may not change,
as only the first dimension of the theory has been addressed.
For motivation to be successful, both the hygiene and motivation sets of factors must be addressed.
The latter – in order to
improve morale – include greater responsibility, better recognition, potential
for advancement and personal growth and development opportunities, in order to improve output.
Unity of Command and Chain of Command
Notwithstanding the unique requirements of project teams, committees etc, each employee should
only have one person to whom he/she reports. Anything else is a recipe for confusion and
contradiction. This concept is known as
unity of command.
71 | P a g e
v1.2.0 (0821)
© Copyright ISMI Certification Ltd. No unauthorised sharing, copying, reuse in whole or in part,
uploading or webhosting permitted.
Unit 4 – Leadership and Management Core Skills
A related concept is chain of command. Managers should not violate the chain of command unless in
an emergency. If you are not satisfied with the performance of a front-line employee, ask the
supervisor to address the problem. If you address it yourself directly with the employee – bypassing
the supervisor – you risk undermining the supervisor’s authority and morale.
In Summary
Summary motivational points that you can take away from this section of the Module are as follows:

Self-fulfilment Enable employees to take on challenges.
Recognition Tell employees how well they are performing.
Peer respect Celebrate success publicly.
Expertise Encourage development and knowledge.
Competence Training.
Achievement Agree targets.
Autonomy Allow employees to plan and design work.
Self-confidence Ensure tasks can be completed well.
Self-respect Increase individual’s self-regard.

72 | P a g e
v1.2.0 (0821)
© Copyright ISMI Certification Ltd. No unauthorised sharing, copying, reuse in whole or in part,
uploading or webhosting permitted.
Unit 4 – Leadership and Management Core Skills
Delegating
Introduction
As a manager and a leader it is part of your role
to assign work. This may be uncomfortable,
because you work to very specific standards,
probably very high standards if you are already
a manager. Therefore, essential precursors to
delegation are ensuring that your expectations
are communicated and that those to whom
you delegate are appropriately trained, skilled
and resourced. Selecting the right people to
delegate to is a critical force multiplier to your
overall performance. Delegation creates a
win-win situation for you and your employees.
Delegation is essential to employee growth
and motivation, and if managed well, should
ultimately make your job as a leader, manager and coordinator a little easier. Most importantly, it will
free up your time for the more important, strategic activities. And who knows, you may be pleasantly
surprised by the latent untapped abilities that exist within your team.
Delegating Responsibility, Authority and Accountability
When delegating you should ensure that the person to whom the task is delegated has:
The necessary resources (including ability).
Responsibility.
Authority.
Accountability.
Authority means giving them the power to make the decisions necessary to reach the goal. A common
mistake of managers, especially new managers or those lacking in confidence, is that they fail to give
the necessary authority. This will mean that the employee will keep coming back for approval and
guidance and he/she won’t grow. And you will be exceptionally busy!
Responsibility is closely linked to accountability. Responsibility means putting the person to whom
the task is delegated in charge of the outcome. Accountability means holding that person accountable
if they fail in undertaking the task successfully.
The latter point is contested. After all, you as manager have ultimate responsibility. But if you arm a
security officer and provide him/her with the appropriate training, brief and equipment, and then
“I’d rather do it myself”
No one else can do it as well as I can – or as
quickly”
“A mistake would really cost us”
If any of these statements applies to you, it’s
time to rethink your attitude toward
delegation.
Source: The Practical SupervisorDelegation, Scriptographic
73 | P a g e
v1.2.0 (0821)
© Copyright ISMI Certification Ltd. No unauthorised sharing, copying, reuse in whole or in part,
uploading or webhosting permitted.
Unit 4 – Leadership and Management Core Skills
delegate to him/her the protection of a key point, during which he/she fails in his/her duty and
discharges a weapon negligently, he/she is legally accountable for those actions.
Advice to Heed When Delegating
Learn to let go. You can’t do everything yourself. Initially the delegate won’t do the task as
well as you, but they will learn. Think of your own performance when you first started your
job. Be patient and work together toward sustained improvement.
Don’t delegate tasks that it is your responsibility to do as a manager.
Delegate not only the task, but also the authority necessary to complete it. Ensure the
delegate knows the limits of his/her authority and when he/she should come to you for
approval.
Communicate to the delegate clear objectives concerning the task, together with any
necessary constraints.
Put the delegation plan in writing. This may include timelines.
Give the delegate the opportunity to clarify issues, and then ask him/her to summarise the
key points.
Provide any necessary training, coaching or demonstrate how the task should be done.
Observe and critique to the extent possible. This is more important in the initial stages of
the task.
Ensure that the delegate has the necessary resources, and the support of the team.
Explain to the delegate how you will measure success.
Remain accessible to the delegate to provide assistance.
Try not to countermand the decisions of the delegate; this will demotivate.
Don’t punish the delegate for making mistakes; it’s part of learning.
Monitor progress but don’t breathe down the delegate’s neck. Seek other people’s opinions
on the success of the delegate.
Play to the delegate’s strengths and career goals, and not weaknesses. You may have
natural mathematicians in the team, or natural trainers. Play to the delegate’s specific skill
sets and utilise them.
Try to delegate to those who show enthusiasm and motivation. Delegation to those without
these attributes may result in a lose-lose situation.

74 | P a g e
v1.2.0 (0821)
© Copyright ISMI Certification Ltd. No unauthorised sharing, copying, reuse in whole or in part,
uploading or webhosting permitted.
Unit 4 – Leadership and Management Core Skills
Bibliography and Further Reading
Ali, Moi; Brookson, Stephen; Bruce, Andy; Heller, Robert; Hindle, Tim; Langdon, Ken (2002) The
Management Book
, Dorling-Kindersely, London, UK
Allport, Gordon (1937)
Personality: A Psychological Interpretation, Holt, Rinehart, & Winston, New
York.
Bartol, K.M. and Martin, D.D. (1998)
Management, McGraw Hill, Location
Belbin, R Meredith (2010)
Team Roles at Work, Taylor and Francis, Elsevier, Oxford, UK
Broder, J (2006),
Risk Analysis and the Security Survey, Elsevier, Boston, MA
Burns, James in Wikipedia (2013)
Transformational Leadership,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformational_leadership accessed January 2013
Chambers, Ruth et al (2007)
How to Succeed as a Leader, Radcliffe Publishing Ltd, Milton Keynes, UK
Fayol, Henri (1949)
General and Industrial Management, Pitman, London
Fredrickson, B. (2009)
Positivity, Random House, New York.
Greenberg, J. and Baron, R.A. (1997)
Behaviour in Organisations: Understanding and Managing the
Human Side of Work
, Prentice Hall, New Jersey, NJ
Heller, Robert (2002)
Manager’s Handbook, Dorling Kindersley, London
Herzberg, F.I. (1987)
One More Time: How Do You Motivate Employees?, Harvard Business Review,
Sep/Oct87, Vol. 65 Issue 5, p109-120
Hoover, J.D., Giambatista, R.C., Sorenson, R.L., and Bommer, W.H. (2010)
Assessing the
Effectiveness of Whole Person Learning Pedagogy in Skill Acquisition
, Academy of Management
Learning and Education 9(2), 192-203.
Jones, Gordon and Rosemary (2003)
Teamwork: How to Build Relationships, Scripture Union,
Australia
Kahneman, Daniel (2011)
Thinking, Fast and Slow, Penguin, London, UK
Kotter, J.P. (1990)
How Leadership Differs from Management, Free Press, New York
LeadershipIQ.com (2005)
Mismanagement, Inaction among the Real Reasons Why CEOs Get Fired,
http://www.prweb.com/releases/2005/06/prweb253465.htm, accessed December 2012
Lussier, Robert N. and Achua, Christopher F. (2010)
Leadership: Theory, Application and Skills
Development
, South-Western, Mason, OH
75 | P a g e
v1.2.0 (0821)
© Copyright ISMI Certification Ltd. No unauthorised sharing, copying, reuse in whole or in part,
uploading or webhosting permitted.
Unit 4 – Leadership and Management Core Skills
Marcousé, Ian, Gillespie, Andrew, Martin, Barry, Surridge, Malcolm and Wall, Nancy (2005) Business
Studies
, Hodder and Stoughton, Oxford, UK
Maslow, A.H. (1943)
A Theory of Human Motivation. Psychological Review, 50(4), 370–96.
Retrieved from
http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Maslow/motivation.htm accessed January 2013
Mintzberg, H. (1983)
Structure in Fives: Designing Effective Organisations, Prentice-Hall, Englewood
Cliffs, NJ
Patterson, David G. (2005)
Implementing Physical Protection Systems: A Practical Guide, ASIS
International, Alexandria, VA
Scriptographic (1995)
The Practical Supervisor, Scriptographic Publications Ltd, Alton, UK
West, Michael A. (2012)
Effective Teamwork: Practical Lessons from Organizational Research, John
Wiley and Sons, Chichester, UK
Woods, John A. (1997)
10 Minute Guide to Teams and Teamwork, McMillan Spectrum/Alpha Books,
NY
Disclaimer
The material and information contained in this module are generic, and for general information
and educational purposes only. You rely upon the material or information in this module as a
basis for making any security, business, legal or any other decisions entirely at your own risk and
without legal recourse to ISMI. Whilst ISMI endeavours to keep the information up to date and
correct, we make no representations or warranties of any kind, express or implied about the
completeness, accuracy, reliability, suitability or availability with respect to the module or the
information, best practice, products, services or related graphics contained in the module for any
purpose. Any reliance you place on such material is therefore strictly at your own risk.