CHAPTER43
ETHICAL DECISION MAKING
AND HIGH TECHNOLOGY
James Landon Linderman
43.1 INTRODUCTION: THE ABCs
OF COMPUTER ETHICS 43·1
43.1.1 Why an Ethics
Chapter in a
Computer Security

43.2 AWARENESS 43·2
43.2.1 Principle 1: Ethics
Counts 43·2
43.2.2 Principle 2: Ethics Is
Everybody’s Business 43·2
43.2.3 A Test: Put Yourself

43.3 BASICS 43·3
43.3.1 Principle 3:
Stakeholders Dictate

43.3.3 More Tests 43·3
43.3.4 A Guideline

43.4 CONSIDERATIONS 43·4
43.4.1 Principle 5: Ethics
Need Not and Should

43.4.3 Principle 7: Ethics
Policies Deserve

43.4.5 The Smell Test 43·6
43.4.6 An Approach:
Stocktaking 43·6
43.5 CONCLUDING REMARKS 43·7
43.5.1 How to Keep Up 43·7
43.5.2 Why to Keep Up 43·7
43.6 FURTHER READING 43·8
43.1 INTRODUCTION: THE ABCs OF COMPUTER ETHICS
43.1.1 Why an Ethics Chapter in a Computer Security Handbook? In
an information age, many potential misuses and abuses of information create privacy
and security problems. In addition to possible legal issues, ethical issues affect many
groups and individuals—including employees and customers, vendors, consultants,
bankers, and stockholders—who have enough at stake in the matter to confront and
43 · 1
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43 · 2 ETHICAL DECISION MAKING AND HIGH TECHNOLOGY
even destroy an organization over ethical lapses. As is so often the case, consciousness
raising is at the heart of maintaining control.
In this chapter, the term “ethics” refers to a system of moral principles that relate
to the benefts and harms of particular actions and to the rightness and wrongness of
motives and ends of these actions. The major sections cover principles of ethics, tests
to help recognize ethical and unethical behavior, and approaches to help ensure good
ethical conduct.
43.1.2 How Much Time Do You Have for This Chapter? Section 43.2
requires only one minute to read, but it forms the foundation of this chapter and of a
lifelong concern for one of the most important requisites of a valued career and of a
civilized society. Ethics matters, and here are the ABCs:
Section 43.2 Awareness (a one-minute primer)
Section 43.3 Basics (a 10-minute summary)
Section 43.4 Considerations (a 100-minute study)
Section 43.5 Details (a lifetime of ongoing commitment)
43.2 AWARENESS. The sections that follow distill some of the most important
issues.
43.2.1 Principle 1: Ethics Counts. Increasingly, society is holding individuals
and organizations to higher ethical standards than in the past; for example, in recent
years, many countries have passed privacy legislation, conflict-of-interest restrictions
for public offcials, and full-disclosure laws for candidates for a variety of public offces.
People, individually and collectively, really want to trust others. Two corollaries to the
principle that ethics counts are:
1. Good ethical standards are usually good for business.
2. Violations of ethics are almost always bad for business.
In other words, good ethical behavior usually is appreciated by society, and bad
ethical behavior almost always is frowned on and punished—sooner or later.
43.2.2 Principle 2: Ethics Is Everybody’s Business. A second important
principle is that good ethics flourishes best when everyone works at it, both in practicing
good ethics and in holding others to do so. The reverse of this is also true: Those who
practice bad ethics, or choose to ignore the bad ethics of others, are truly part of the
problem. Ethics is inescapably everybody’s business.
43.2.3 A Test: Put Yourself in Another’s Shoes. One of the best evaluators
of whether certain behavior is ethical or not invites you to put yourself in the other
person’s shoes and ask the role-reversal question: “What if I were on the receiving end
of the behavior in question?” This variant of the time-honored golden rule translates to
“If I wouldn’t like it done to me, I probably shouldn’t do it to others.”
43.2.4 An Approach: Disclose! One of the best guidelines to help ensure good
ethical behavior is to let your stakeholders in on what you are doing or are about to do.
Good ethics flourishes in the light of day; bad ethics ultimately relies on concealment.
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BASICS 43 · 3
Disclosure buys you two forms of peace of mind: First, you’re being openly honest;
second, if others do not like it, you have at least given them the opportunity to express
their concerns.
For example, consider organizational policy about managers reading employee
email. Almost any policy (anywhere from aggressive intervention to complete hands
off) is likely to be ethical if and only if employees are made aware of it.
43.3 BASICS. The expansion of Section 43.2 that follows elaborates on the basic
principles enunciated there.
43.3.1 Principle 3: Stakeholders Dictate Ethics. Stakeholders are defned
as any individuals or groups with something at stake in the outcome of a decision. In the
world of business, stockholders are almost always stakeholders; employees, customers,
suppliers, and even competitors are often stakeholders too. How a decision harms or
benefts stakeholders is a major ethical consideration. Effects on stakeholders are so
important that the best place to start looking at the ethics of a decision is to identify
stakeholders and just what it is they have at stake. Decisions will invariably affect
individuals and groups, often in opposite ways: Some may stand to gain, others to lose
or suffer. The effects and trade-offs raise the principal ethics concerns.
43.3.2 Principle 4: Traditional Principles Still Apply. Recent generations
are not the frst to raise questions and develop ideas about ethics, although the concept
of business ethics has been mocked as an oxymoron and only recently promoted in
academia as a valuable area of study. High technology has complicated some issues,
but these fundamental principles still apply:
The Golden Rule (“Do unto others as you would have them do unto you”) and
its variants have already been mentioned. These principles remain timeless and
fundamental.
Consideration of the interplay of duties, rights, and responsibilities remains important. When making ethical decisions, we normally examine the legal, professional,
and customary constraints on behavior that apply to our situation.
Traditional reasons for good ethical behavior, such as religious principles, egoism,
utilitarianism, and altruism, still provide us with a useful taxonomy for discussions
about ethics.
The point is that even though modern technology has created new opportunities
for unethical behavior and new motivations for good ethical behavior, it has not been
necessary to develop new principles to deal with ethics. For example, many of the
principles (including politeness) governing the behavior of door-to-door sales still
apply to Internet push technology.
43.3.3 More Tests. In Section 43.2.3, we suggested the “other’s shoes test” as
an excellent evaluator of whether certain behavior is ethical or not. Here we introduce
three other tests. The frst two are negative in the sense of suggesting that behavior is
inappropriate; the third is positive and suggests that the behavior in question is ethical.
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43 · 4 ETHICAL DECISION MAKING AND HIGH TECHNOLOGY
1. The “mom test” asks how your mom (spouse, children, best friend, etc.) would
react if aware of your actions. If you would be embarrassed having someone
close to you know what is going on, the odds are pretty good it is unethical.
2. The “eye-team test” takes this a step further and considers the results of exposing
your actions to the whole world as part of an investigative team broadcast. Again,
the more embarrassment, the more likely the unethical nature of the actions.
3. The “market test” asks you to think about openly publicizing your actions as a
competitive customer relations strategy. Never mind whether such a marketing
strategy is actually feasible; if such exposure could impress others favorably,
chances are you are on solid ethical ground.
43.3.4 A Guideline Approach: Ask! Section 43.2.4 endorsed disclosure as
one of the best guidelines to help ensure good ethical behavior. This simply means
letting your stakeholders in on what you are doing, or about to do. Having done so, it
then becomes an appropriate guideline to ask those stakeholders for their permission
(or acquiescence, or at least acknowledgment) before you proceed. This can be in the
form of allowing stakeholders to opt out of certain policies. Many stakeholders prefer
an opt-in approach rather than a default assumption of acceptability, particularly if that
assumption is nonintuitive or otherwise obscure.
An example of this approach to ethical behavior is the legally enforced requirement
in many countries to ask customers for permission to use their personally identifable
information for purposes other than the original defned functions. Typically, customers
have either to opt out of information sharing or opt in to such use of their information.
In other cases, stakeholders such as employees or shareholders may disagree with the
ethical implications of proposed actions. They can then argue against the proposals to
the extent possible. The ultimate option for such stakeholders is to withdraw; employees
can resign and shareholders can sell their shares. If the proposed actions are perceived
as illegal, critics can become whistle-blowers and report the suspected illegality to law
enforcement and regulatory offcials.
43.3.5 Another Guideline Approach: An Ethics Officer. Designating an
individual to serve as a full- or part-time ethics offcer in an enterprise is a powerful,
proactive way to help ensure good ethical behavior. Many large organizations now
consider this a position on the top management team. But even small organizations
can formally delegate such responsibilities on a part-time basis; they need not require
much time and energy of the individual involved. In all cases, the common objectives
include:
Clear management commitment to good business ethics, including adequate resources to support this position
Organizational recognition that this individual has appropriate authority and responsibility, and is a conduit of information into and within the organization
Hassle-free avenues of access to this person
43.4 CONSIDERATIONS. This section discusses some issues of management
style in promulgating and enforcing ethics.
43.4.1 Principle 5: Ethics Need Not and Should Not Be a Hassle. The
last thing one wants with business ethics is hassle. An organization’s ethics policies
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CONSIDERATIONS 43 · 5
should not be obscure, complicated, onerous, or an obstacle to getting things done. The
keys to avoiding hassles include:
Clear and straightforward articulation of ethics policies
Consciousness raising as a prime objective of ethics policies
Clear, comfortable, and safe access to interpretation, for example, by an ethics
offcer
Consistency in promulgation, education, application, and enforcement
Employees should not have to guess what constitutes acceptable behavior, nor
should they be encumbered by anxiety, guilt, or fear. Individuals should be able to gain
clarifcation on matters before, during, or after events without delay and without fear of
being considered a nuisance. Questions about ethics issues deserve unbiased answers,
without the presumption that there has been a breach of ethical conduct or that ulterior
motives are involved.
Whenever an individual is uncomfortable with a situation or a potential situation,
whether he or she is directly involved or not, and particularly if “whistle-blowing”
implicates others or even organizational policy, that discomfort needs to be addressed.
Even if the individual is wrong and should not be concerned, the discomfort should be
dispelled. If the individual is right and there is a legitimate concern, the organization
should resolve the issue in a way that does not put the whistle-blower on the spot but
rather indicates support for such disclosure.
43.4.2 Principle 6: Ethics Policies Deserve Formality. Like other important policies, an organization’s ethics policies deserve formality:
Clear documentation
Clear motivation
Clear sanctions
Clear management support at every level, including the top
Anything less than the foregoing suggests confusion at best and lip service at worst.
Formality should not mean bureaucracy or piles of manuals. Consistent with the ffth
principle of avoiding hassles, documentation should be brief and clear, and directed at
simplifying matters rather than complicating them. The preparation and presentation
of policies should reflect a process of thoughtful, high-priority consideration.
A corollary of this principle is peer participation. Policies that ultimately rely on
organizational support are best developed and disseminated with peer involvement.
43.4.3 Principle 7: Ethics Policies Deserve Review. Perhaps the only
thing as dangerous as ignorance when it comes to policy is complacency. This is
as true of ethics policies as it is of any other organizational policy. In particular, to
assume everyone in an organization is on board with policy is na¨ıve at best. Review
offers a type of preventive maintenance whereby policies and their promulgation are
reconsidered with an eye to improvement.
Any organizational policy requires subscription on the part of the members of the
organization. Understanding of and compliance with any policy suffers a dangerous
tendency to lapse when a policy simply gathers dust. Even an occasional mention and
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43 · 6 ETHICAL DECISION MAKING AND HIGH TECHNOLOGY
discussion of ethical issues or principles during meetings can breathe new life into old
policy.
Just as a corollary of Principle 6 was peer participation in the formalization of
policy, so is peer involvement a corollary of policy review. Such peer review not
only facilitates fresh insights into policy, but the process itself represents a powerful
educational opportunity.
43.4.4 Principle 8: Anticipate. Few people relish the prospect of a serious
breach of organizational ethics, particularly if matters reach the point of embarrassing
publicity or even legal action. It is better to contemplate the worst scenarios in advance
rather than to deal with them without preparation and after the fact. Wishful thinking
often deters an organization from including appropriate issues in formal policy. This
must not be permitted to happen.
It is better to address tough issues head on than to take anything for granted. The
two best ways of doing so are to:
1. Have comprehensive policies that cover any foreseeable eventuality.
2. Have a full- or part-time ethics offcer in place to stay on top of things.
43.4.5 The Smell Test. Sometimes the other tests discussed (other’s shoes,
mom, eye-team, market) can result in fuzzy or ambiguous analysis. It may be hard
to put yourself in someone else’s shoes, especially if different individuals would have
widely different reactions to your behavior. And sometimes your family and friends,
the general public, or your customers could be neutral or divided in their reactions.
The so-called smell test does not require quantitative or even qualitative estimations;
it simply relies on your intuition as to whether the behavior in question “smells fshy.”
In other words, if you catch yourself seeking justifcations, or feel a bit uncomfortable
even thinking about the implications, the ethics may be as bad or poor as they smell.
43.4.6 An Approach: Stocktaking. Where can an organization start with
all this if it has not already done so? Things usually start with a concerned individual
(you?) doing some stocktaking and consciousness raising. Questions for you and others
in your organization to consider follow. If you like the answers, then your organization
is ethically aware. If you do not like the answers, your organization must deal with the
issues you have uncovered.
If you felt that a fellow employee was misusing company resources or harassing
someone, is it obvious what you should do? Is there someone in the organization
you could comfortably talk with?
Do you have the sense that top management in your organization is aware of ethics
issues? Do you have the sense that they care?
Do you know if your organization monitors employee email or computer usage?
How much personal business, such as email and net surfng, is permissible on
company time?
How important is quality to your company’s products and services? Are marketing
claims consistent with quality?
What, if any, information does your company capture about customers, suppliers,
or employees without their permission? Without even their knowledge? What, if
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CONCLUDING REMARKS 43 · 7
any, information does your company provide to entities outside the organization
about customers, suppliers, or employees without their permission? Without even
their knowledge?
Does your organization fully comply with license arrangements and payments for
software and hardware?
Are customers, suppliers, and employees always treated with dignity and respect?
How would a stakeholder (e.g., a new employee) become aware of organizational
ethics policies?
For each of these questions, the issue of how one knows must be raised. Ambiguous,
confusing, or unreliable knowledge of what is or is not going on should raise red flags of
concern. Discomfort with such knowledge may be symptomatic of underlying problems
with ethics.
The stocktaking just suggested should translate into action steps for your organization. Here are a few suggested actions to get started.
Ask some of your peers to consider the same stock-taking questions, and compare
their thoughts with yours.
Itemize and prioritize any concerns.
Make an appointment with someone fairly high up in management to discuss
those concerns. If you are that someone, make an appointment with two or three
peers and with subordinates who represent the staff.
Examine the feasibility of appointing a full- or part-time ethics offcer while
considering the downside of not having one.
Ask your internal or external auditors to consider an audit of your ethics policies
the next time they do a fnancial or operational audit.
43.5 CONCLUDING REMARKS. As with security awareness, ethical awareness needs freshness and repetition.
43.5.1 How to Keep Up. One of the best ways for individuals and organizations to keep up with matters of good ethics is to spread the job around. Do not try to
shoulder the effort alone; it will likely overwhelm any one individual, and collective
thinking is valuable in these matters. Without abrogating individual responsibilities,
charging the right person with the job of ethics offcer will certainly help to keep the
enterprise on an appropriate ethical course. A growing number of periodicals, both
professional and of general interest, include articles involving ethics. Reading and then
discussing them with your peers can be invaluable. Additionally, there has been an
increase in the number of Websites addressing ethical issues. See Section 43.6.
43.5.2 Why to Keep Up. Keeping on top of organizational ethics is important
because it is the right thing to do. Contemporary business practice embraces the idea
of an extended value chain where entities such as customers and suppliers, traditionally seen as outside organizational boundaries, are now viewed as partners. Strategic
alliances are being formed with these entities, and keeping business partners satisfed
and confdent is now a strategic necessity. Souring the relationship by a breach of
ethics is completely inconsistent with sound business practices. Even if customers and
suppliers are not formally viewed as business partners, they are still essential to doing
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43 · 8 ETHICAL DECISION MAKING AND HIGH TECHNOLOGY
business and are not to be taken for granted. At the very least, given the range of
alternative choices available today, unfair exploitation and other forms of unethical
practice expose an organization to outright abandonment.
Finally, in the spirit of total quality management, whereby everyone in the enterprise
is seen to contribute to its success or failure, your enterprise can be said to be counting
on you. The converse may also be true: Your job and your future career may well
depend on the success of your enterprise. The good ethics of your organization reflect
favorably on you and your colleagues, but bad ethics will have an opposite effect.
43.6 FURTHER READING. A list follows of some books and Websites that will
be helpful to readers seeking further discussion of ethical decision making in general,
and ethics in business and high technology.
Barger, R. N. “In Search of a Common Rationale for Computer Ethics,” 1994;
www.nd.edu/∼rbarger/common-rat.html
Computer Ethics Institute. www.computerethicsinstitute.org
Cavazos, E., and G. Morin. Cyberspace and the Law: Your Rights and Duties in the
On-Line World. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1996.
Computer & Information Ethics Resources on Center for Applied Ethics, University
of British Columbia. www.ethicsweb.ca/resources
Vance, David (ed.). “Information System Ethics.” http://cyberethics.cbi.msstate.edu
Cyber Citizen Partnership. Information Technology Association of America (ITAA) &
Department of Justice (DoJ). www.cybercitizenship.org
Cyberangels. www.cyberangels.org
Cyberspacers (kids’ site). www.cyberspacers.com/home.html
EpistemeLinks. Philosophy Resources on the Internet—Computer Ethics. http://tinyurl
.com/33kduz (URL inactive).
Ess, C. Digital Media Ethics. Polity, 2013.
Ethics and Information Technology (journal). www.springer.com/computer/prog
ramming/journal/10676
Floridi, L. “Information Ethics: On the Philosophical Foundations of Computer
Ethics.” Version 2.0, 1998; www.philosophyofnformation.net/publications/pdf/
ieotpfoce2.pdf
Forester, T., and P. Morrison. Computer Ethics: Cautionary Tales and Ethical Dilemmas
in Computing. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1990.
Gaskin, S., and A. Evans. GO! Ethics in Cyberspace: Getting Started 2nd Ed. PrenticeHall, 2013.
Gotterbarn, D. K. W. Miller, J. Impagliazzo, and A. Z. B. A. Bakar. Computing Ethics:
A Multicultural Approach. Chapman & Hall, 2013.
Institute for Global Ethics. www.globalethics.org
Johnson, D. O. Computer Ethics, 3rd ed. New York: Prentice-Hall, 2000.
Kabay, M. E. “Hacker Tips Published in Wall Street Journal.” Network World
Security Strategies, August 28, 2007; www.networkworld.com/newsletters/
sec/2007/0827sec1.html
Kabay, M. E. “Ethical Decision-Making: Identifying the Ethical Issue,” Network World Security Strategies, August 30, 2007; www.networkworld.com/
newsletters/sec/2007/0827sec2.html
Kabay, M. E. “Ethical Decision-Making: Using Formal and Informal Guidelines,”
Network World Security Strategies, September 4, 2007; www.networkworld.com/
newsletters/sec/2007/0903sec1.html
Computer Security Handbook, Set, edited by Seymour Bosworth, et al., John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central,
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FURTHER READING 43 · 9
Kabay, M. E. “Ethical Decision-Making: Principles, Rights and Duties, and
Intuitive Cues,” Network World Security Strategies, September 6, 2007;
www.networkworld.com/newsletters/sec/2007/0903sec2.html
Kabay, M. E. “Ethics.” Section of Website. www.mekabay.com/ethics/index.htm
Kabay, M. E. “Incident Response: Don’t Lie,” Network World Security Strategies, October 23, 20/07; www.networkworld.com/newsletters/sec/2007/1022sec1.html
Kallman, E. A., and J. P. Grillo. Ethical Decision Making and Information Technology:
An Introduction with Cases, 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1996.
Kizza, M. Ethical and Social Issues in the Information Age, 5th ed. Springer, 2013.
Lessig, L., D. Post, and E. Volokh. “Cyberspace Law for Non-Lawyers.” Published
via email, 1997; www.ssrn.com/update/lsn/cyberspace/csl lessons.html (URL
inactive).
Online Ethics Center for Engineering and Science. http://onlineethics.org
Orlando, J., and M. E. Kabay. “Social Engineering in Penetration Testing: Cases,”
Network World Security Strategies, October 25, 2007; www.networkworld
.com/newsletters/2007/1022sec2.html
Pimple, K. Emerging Pervasive Information and Communication Technologies (PICT):
Ethical Challenges, Opportunities and Safeguards. Springer, 2013.
Project NEThics at the University of Maryland. www.inform.umd.edu/CompRes/
NEThics/ethics (URL inactive).
Schumacher, P., and M. E. Kabay. “Social Engineering in Penetration Testing: Intimidation,” Network World Security Strategies, November 8, 2007;
www.networkworld.com/newsletters/sec/2007/1105sec2.html
Schumacher, P., and M. E. Kabay. “Social Engineering in Penetration Testing: Overload and Fascination,” Network World Security Strategies, November 13, 2007;
www.networkworld.com/newsletters/sec/2007/1112sec1.html
Spinello, R. Cyberethics: Morality and Law in Cyberspace, 5th ed. Jones & Bartlett
Learning, 2013
Tavani, H. T. Ethics and Technology: Controversies, Questions, and Strategies for
Ethical Computing. 4th ed. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2012.
Thies, C. Computer Law and Ethics. Mercury Learning & Information, 2013.
Thinkquest. “Computer Ethics.” http://library.thinkquest.org/26658/?tqskip=1
University of British Columbia Centre for Applied Ethics. www.ethics.ubc.ca
Web Wise Kids. www.webwisekids.com
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Created from ivytech on 2023-05-10 02:43:32.
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