Title page

DNA recombination in plasmids

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table of contents

 

Introduction                                                                                                      2

Methodology                                                                                                      4

References

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Introduction

Several studies have explored the genetic recombination catalyzed by cell-free extracts of Escherichia coli exploiting the tiny globular DNA genomes of plasmids to understand the mechanism of DNA recombination and familiarity with the products produced. The evidence currently existing on the recombination of DNAs arises from several experiments that have analysed recombination products using genetic methods or that have determined the structures of recombination products and intermediates using physical methods. According to Tüzmen et al. (2018), R-DNA technology opened up a brand-new era in scientific study. Molecular cloning, a new development in molecular biology, allows for the creation of DNA sequences not typically seen in biological organisms by combining genetic material from other animals. These rDNA molecules are produced in the lab using methods like molecular cloning. These foreign rDNA fragments are transferred to and expressed via vectors in suitable host organisms like bacteria. Rearranging segments of DNA, frequently between homologous areas, is known as DNA recombination. With the advent of DNA shuffling technology in the last ten years, this process which occurs in natural evolution, has been utilised for combinatorial protein manufacturing. (Ducheyne, 2015).

Plasmids are typically circular double-stranded DNA molecules covalently closed, similar to bacterial chromosomes. These self-replicating additional DNA fragments allow their hosts to adapt to environmental obstacles or specific niches by expressing certain genes. Genes carried by plasmids are generally optional, but giant plasmids, called “chromids”, frequently carry genes crucial for basic physiology. Plasmids also aid in the horizontal spread of the genes they carry, frequently between different species, which aids in the process of evolution (Million-Weaver, & Camps, 2014). Several DNA substrates are required depending on the application. The development of suitable single- and double-stranded linear targeting substrates for various uses. Recombination of DNA A section that has to be inserted is surrounded by two homology arms and is known as the linear dsDNA substrate for recombineering. The inserted area could be a counter-selectable marker or a non-selectable DNA used in its place (Sharan et al., 2009).

Simple DNA recombination in vitro was initially made possible by DNA shuffling.   A collection of homologous genes serves as the beginning material, such as a random mutagenesis library produced by PCR or genes from closely related species or families. It is possible to purify plasmid DNA by separating it from chromosomal DNA after obtaining DNA from a strain that includes plasmids. If the plasmid contains a single, unique target site for enzyme, restriction endonucleases produce linear plasmid molecules with brief complementary single-stranded sequences at each end, also called “sticky ends,” by cutting the double-stranded DNA asymmetrically. The DNA that has to be inserted is likewise subjected to an endonuclease treatment that yields fragments with comparable sticky ends, enabling annealing between complementary sequences to occur when the plasmid and insert DNA are combined under the right circumstances. The enzyme ligase creates the covalent linkage between the insert and the vector DNA (Hussey, 1992).

Plasmids are kept stable inside the host bacterial cells by several processes. Plasmid dimerization creates multimers, decreases the amount of molecules in the cell and also cause instable plasmid segregation. Plasmid stability is guaranteed by the site-specific recombination machinery known as Xer, which catalyses the breakdown of plasmid dimers into monomers. The resolution of chromosome dimers, which enables appropriate segregation of chromosomes during cell division, is another function of this recombination mechanism. By facilitating the integration of phages carrying genes encoding virulence factors, it is also indirectly engaged in virulence (Bui et al., 2006).

Recombineering has many applications due to its high efficiency and minimal homology needs. Selectable or non-selectable markers can be inserted into plasmids and bacterial chromosomal DNA recombination. To generate alleles in embryonic stem cells, they can be used to produce constructs for gene-targets (Sharan et al., 2009). It is an efficient way for extensive research that requires the expression of thousands of genes as proteins. Due to the exceptional requirements and provisions of each construct, conventional cloning techniques based on restriction enzyme ligation and digestion are not practical. High-throughput cloning of genes into protein expression vectors is possible without restriction digest procedures using recombinational cloning, which moves DNA from one vector to another based on sequence homology. Site-specific recombination is employed in DNA recombination when the vector and insert both have the required sequences of nucleotide for the cloning enzymes for the identification of recombination process. They are known as “recombination sequences” because of their nucleotide specificity. Recombinational cloning also has the benefit of enabling the creation of entry clones. A single insert can be transferred into many expression vectors using this intermediary clone, which also acts as a holding or store clone. In order to create a particular type of library, numerous entry clones with different sequences can also be put together in a single expression vector (Throop & LaBaer, 2015)

Escherichia coli has advantages over other host organisms for in vivo DNA assembly, as well as faster growth rates, large amount of plasmid, and improved efficiency of transformation. In vivo DNA assembly techniques in E. coli have been developed due to several investigations (Kostylev et al., 2015). In order to produce heterologous gene products with both prokaryotic and eukaryotic origins, bacterial expression methods are frequently employed. E. coli, a bacterial system, is most frequently and regularly utilised for expressing heterologous proteins. Nowadays, E. coli produces a variety of heterologous proteins with medicinal importance. Human insulin made in E. coli and initially licenced in the UK, West Germany, The Netherlands, and the USA in 1982 was the first heterologous protein used in clinical practice (Fakruddin et al., 2013). This study’s main goal was to identify three different stains’ changes on the plasmid DNA when cells are cultivated in them. It also describes how to examine the byproducts of plasmid recombination events using plasmid substrates that carry physical and genetic markers.

 

Methodology

Three different E. coli strains, i.e. DS941 DS941 regular cloning (LB), DS945 dimerization (LB), and FC33/pSDC115, containing a plasmid with two cer-site, were used in dimer resolution assays. Plasmid pUC19, needed for cloning and as the negative control in all transformation steps, and pSDC115, required as a positive control, were utilized in this project.

Miniprep

The first step of DNA recombination included the restriction digestion of pUC19 with EcoRI and HindIII. Plasmid DNA was obtained by the QI prep kit using a miniprep technique. The QIAprep miniprep technique’s plasmid yield varies with the number of plasmid copies per cell. The specific insert in a plasmid, aspects that influence bacterial culture development, the volume of elution, and the length of the elution incubation time it was employed right away after they were purified to remove plasmid DNA (Kit et al., 2002). We set up three different reactions for pUC19.  Bacteria that had been pelleted were re-suspended in 2 μl of buffer p1 and then put into a microcentrifuge tube. A check was made to see if RNAse had been introduced to buffer p1. After adding it, the 2 μl buffer P2 solution was well mixed by gently flipping the tube 4–6 times. The 2μl bufferN3 solution was added, and a homogeneously coloured suspension was formed. Centrifuged the mixture for 10 min at 13,000 rpm. Afterwards, the solution was run through the Qiaprep 2.0 spin columns before the vacuum source was turned off. The dry DNA was dissolved in 15 μl of sterile water and placed on the bench for at least one hour at room temperature. Then, the sample was digested with HindIII+EcoRI (1 μl of buffer, 5 μl of DNA, 1 μl of diluted HindIII, 1 l of diluted EcoRI, and 2 μl of water). The solution was then incubated at 37 degrees for one hour, followed by 10 minutes of heat inactivation at 65 degrees. The double-digested product was then put onto the gel for gel purification. After the digestion of the pUC19 plasmid, we made an agarose gel, and the GelRed was added to the agarose. The elution was made under UV light to ensure we had enough DNA.

Preparation of agarose gels

E.coil strains were produced, and then 0.8% agarose gel was made. The fragments are viewed using an agarose gel. DNA molecules can be separated using this technique between a few hundred and over 10,000 nucleotides in length. The gel equipment was filled with molten agarose. Next, the bench was covered with agarose gel. After the agarose had dried, 50 ml of gel was poured over it while still running with buffer (TBE).

Gel electrophoresis

Gel electrophoresis was performed on 0.8% agrose gel. Extracted cDNA PCR products and their negative controls were run on an agarose gel to distinguish cDNA strands.

Preparation of Azure solution

 0.4g Azure A chloride solid was dissolved in 500mL 40% Ethanol to prepare 2x Azure A. then the solution was stored in a glass screw-capped bottle out of direct sunlight. The solution was diluted with distilled or deionised water to a desired final volume.

Staining with Azure solution

Transfer the gel to the plastic box after pouring out the buffer solution. Fill the container with enough 1x Azure A solution (0.04% Azure A in 20% ethanol) to completely cover the gel. High-concentration DNA bands were seen at this point, 10-15 minutes after staining. DNA of the proper size to be a plasmid dimer was recovered from the electrophoresed plasmid DNA in a 0.8% agarose gel.

Gel extraction

The same procedure was used for gel extraction after staining with Azure as used in Ethidium bromide gel extraction without using a UV transilluminator and related face protection. The only difference was the results from using Azure A are a color change that is not typically observed when using the kit. We weighed the gel slice in a clear tube after removing the DNA fragment from the agarose gel. One volume of gel received three volumes of buffer g. 400 mg of gel might fit into one spin column at most.  It was incubated at 50°c for 10 min. Then we Vortexes the tube every 2–3 min to help dissolve the gel. After the gel slice had utterly dissolved, we added one gel volume of isopropanol, mixed it, and then quickly spun a column in the 2 ml collecting tube. After applying the mixture to the QIAquick column for DNA binding, the mixture was centrifuged for one minute. Put the QIAquick column back into the same tube after discarding the flow-through. After cleaning the column, 750 l of buffer was added to the QIAquick column, which was centrifuged for one minute or subjected to a vacuum. The yield of pure DNA may increase if the incubation period is extended to 4 minutes using a QIAquick membrane.

Preparation of LB broth and LB plates 

 

We prepared the LB or LB/agar bottle, and Ampicillin was added to the LB plates.

 

Ampicillin stock

 

1000X Ampicillin stock, 100mg/ml, was prepared by dissolving 0.5g of ampicillin in 5 ml of distilled water. A vortex was stirred to ensure that all the powder had been solubilised in the solution. And then sterilised using a 0.2nm filter.

 

Preparation of competent cells

5 ml of LB medium inoculated with an overnight culture without antibiotics. Then 25 ml of cells were added to two 50 ml sterile falcon tubes before transferring the cells and incubated. The mixture was on the ice for at least 20 minutes. The supernatant was discarded after centrifuging for 10 minutes at 2700 rpm and four °C. Each pellet was carefully suspended in 25 ml of ice-cold CaCl2-MgCl2 solution. Throw away the supernatant after a 10-minute centrifugation at 2700 pm and four °C. The cells transformed after being carefully suspended in 500 l of ice-cold 100 mM CaCl2 solution.

Transformation of E.coli cells

For the transformation process of cells, three different aliquots of DS941 were prepared, i.e. first with 10ul of the ligation reaction, second with 3ul of pUC19 and third with 10ul of sterile water. After gently stirring, the mixture was incubated on ice for 30min, then given a heat shock at 42°C for 45s in a heat block. After this step, 400ul of LB was added and incubated at 37°C in the shaker for one hour. Then the cells was diluted and plated.   A total of 6 LB/Amp plates with antibiotics and 3 LB plates without antibiotics was used for transformation

Ligation

For ligation, we set up the following reaction

2 μl ligase buffer + 8 μl purified HindIII/EcoRI pUC19 + 8 μl HindIII/EcoRI insert + 1 μl water + 1 μl T4 ligase

The reaction was mixed by pipetting gently, then the mixture was incubated at room temperature for 10 minutes. Then 65 °C heat was used to inactivate for 10min in the heat block. Ice was used to cool the mixture, and 1 to 5 ml of the reaction was converted into 50 ml of competent cells.

Results:

Several strains of E. coli were created using plasmids. From the resultant transf0rmants, plasmid DNA was isolated, and the DNA fragments were determined by electrophoresis in agarose gels. To avoid artefacts brought on by recipient strain transformation by oligomer contamination of monomeric DNA extracted from strains in these investigations, monomeric DNA had to be gel-purified. DNA that had been isolated from several different transformants was analysed to gauge the impact of variation.. Three different E. coli strains, i.e. DS941 DS941 regular cloning (LB), DS945 dimerization (LB), and FC33/pSDC115, containing a plasmid with two cer-site, were used in dimer resolution assays. Plasmid pUC19, needed for cloning and as the negative control in all transformation steps, and pSDC115, required as a positive control, were utilized. After filtering and incubation with calcium chloride  we  take the readings that were, Reading 1 0.272 Reading 2 0.327 Reading 3 0.379 Reading 4 0.420. these are readings depend on the concentration of the calcium chloride.

Using aseptic techniques and sterilizing the environment, cells were taken from plates and transferred to universal bottles containing LB broth. Moreover, the same amount of ampicillin was added before moving the cells.

Figure 1 (a) : DS941 grow on LB plates in the presence of Ampicillin plates for ligation, puc19 and water.

 

Figure 1 (b): LB plates without ampicillin of water for DS941.

Figure 1 (a) showed that cells DS941 grow on LB plates in the presence of Ampicillin plates for ligation, puc19 and water.  Figure (b) showed that cells DS941 did not multiply on LB plates in the presence of Ampicillin plates for ligation, PUC19 and water.

PUC19 is ampicillin resistance therefore it shows grow on the LB plates.   The plates were checked and inoculums for ligations of FC33, PSDC115, DS9456 and DS9457 were made Protocol for mini preparation showed the band for the plasmid, and the PUC19 gel image below showed ligation and PUC19 alongside with DNA ladder.

Figure 2: The gel image above shows ligation and PUC19 alongside with DNA ladder.

The sequence is as follows

LANE1- DNA ladder

LANE2- PUC19

LANE3- Ligation1

LANE4- Ligation2

LANE5- Ligation3

 

PUC19 control DNA is provided to check transformation efficiency.  After the transformation, cells were diluted, plated, and left in the incubator for overnight growth. Our results results showed that DS945 cells shows no grow in the presence of LB/Ampicillin of PUC19, Ligation and Water. At the same time, DS945 cells show growth in the presence of LB plates without ampicillin or water plates. For a number of reasons, the maximum specific growth rate (max) of recombinant strains is crucial. Of course, production will be more effective when biomass formation is quick, but even more crucially, growth rate retardation brought on by plasmid maintenance appears to be a contributing element in segregational instability and has critical implications for risk assessment.

 

Figure 3 (a)

Figure 3 (b) growth on LB/Ampicillin of PUC19, Ligation and Water plates for DS945 cells

 

Figure 3 (c)These images shows growth on LB plates without ampicillin of water plates for DS945 cells.

 

The electrophoretic analysis of plasmid DNA preparations presented below in figure 4 distinguish between dimers from Lane2 PUC19 and Ligation(DS945) in Lane5.

 

Figure 4 electrophoretic analysis of plasmid DNA

 

The sequence is as follows-

LANE1- DNA ladder

LANE2- PUC19

LANE3- Ligation1

LANE4- Ligation2

LANE5- Ligation3

The first lane is DNA ladder from which the other molecules was separated based on their size and charge. shorter pieces of DNA traveled through the pores of the gel matrix faster as lane 2, which shows PUC19. Lane 3, lane 4, lane 5 showed that ligation 1, ligation 2, and ligation 3 which negatively charged are near the wall. We failed to transform the DS941 PUC19 and PSDC115 strains with pRDKl01, perhaps as a result of the combination of the relatively ineffective transformation process, a strain of E. coli that grows slowly, and the absence of ampicillin. In general, PSDC115 monomers reacted similarly to FC33 and DS956 monomers, with the exception that PUC19 DNA and DS941 typically generated larger quantities of Diemers. In FC33 and DS956 strains, monomeric did produce detectable quantities of dimers for PSDC115.

 

Figure 5

This gel image in figure 5 shows

LANE1- DNA ladder

LANE2- DS941

LANE3- PUC19

LANE4- PSDC115

We numbered the four lanes above the gel, by comparing the other band band with DNA ladder we will determine their approximate size. In gel,  lane 1 which showed DNA ladder, that is the well defined fragment in the gel. Lane 4 which is smaller in size than lane 4 and  contains PSDC115 and PUC19  fragment are moving faster in the gel then the fragment present in lane 2.  PSDC115 showed one band, which means dimers have been converted into monomers. The agarose gel demonstrates that the plasmid’s mono and dimer forms have an identical restriction pattern, but the dimer migrates more slowly, as can be seen in lane 2. Each of the aforementioned evidence points to the possibility of ligation in monomer, dimer, and trimer forms. Furthermore, we noticed that even at low plasmid concentrations, most of the plasmid appears in solution as a dimer, and enzyme kinetic parameters revealed that dimer activity was considerably higher than that of mono or trimer, which likely has some biological significances.

 

 

 

Figure 6 gel image

 

Again the first ladder is the DNA ladder, in this gel the lane that is the ligated fragment of PUC19 PSDC115 as PSDC115 is monomer therefore it is smaller in size and moving faster in the gel. Lane 5 DS956, lane 6 FC33, and  lane 7 PSDC115 are non ligated  fragment therefore these are smaller in size.

Discussion

This study aimed to identify three different stains’ changes on the plasmid DNA when cells are cultivated in them. It also describes examining the by products of plasmid recombination events using plasmid substrates that carry physical and genetic markers. Recombineering is a straightforward, 50-base homology-based in vivo genetic engineering technique mainly employed in Escherichia coli. Although homologous recombination is the foundation of recombineering, it is independent of the position of restriction sites and enables exact insertion, deletion, or change of any sequence. Electroporation is used to introduce linear DNAs, either single-stranded synthetic oligonucleotides or double-stranded PCR products, and they provide the homologous substrates needed to make genetic modifications. The most popular host for the recombinant DNA technology used to produce enzymes and other proteins in E. coli. E. coli is preferred due to its relative simplicity, quick and affordable high-density production, well-known genetics, and plenty of available suitable molecular tools (Sharan et al., 2009). Three different E. coli strains, i.e. DS941 DS941 regular cloning (LB), DS945 dimerization (LB), and FC33/pSDC115, containing a plasmid with two cer-site, were used in dimer resolution assays. Plasmid pUC19, needed for cloning and as the negative control in all transformation steps, and pSDC115, required as a positive control, were utilized in this project. A high plasmid cloning vector called pUC119  was used to clone, replicate, and produce single-stranded DNA in E. coli. Single-stranded pUC119 DNA is produced as a result of helper phage; most of this DNA is bundled into phage particles before being released from bacterial cells. From a metastatic human lung cancer, an amplified human sequence was discovered. Several E. coli strains appeared to be affected by a segment of this sequence located behind the lac promoter of pUC19. A 369 bp fragment that appeared to cause anomalous plasmid supercoiling was discovered after subclones were built to determine the most minor portion of the human insert that conferred the activity. A surprising outcome was seen when several constructions were added to the minicell-producing strain of E. coli DS410 to examine this characteristic. Following their early, normal development, the bacteria clumped up in the late log phase, leaving the medium nearly transparent (Heighway et al., 1989). It is advised to use E. coli due to its relative simplicity, quick and economic high-density production, well-known genetics, and the abundance of appropriate molecular tools. Despite all these benefits, recombinant enzyme expression and synthesis are not always successful and can lead to insoluble and dysfunctional proteins. The success of cloning, expression, and mass manufacture of enzymes by recombinant E. coli is influenced by various variables (Fakruddin et al., 2013).  Ligation, or even the joining of DNA fragments, is a crucial step in molecular cloning that is required for the creation of genetically modified organisms that can be employed for fundamental research, applied biosciences, or both. Because that so many genes collaborate in numerous pathways, it is frequently required to combine different genes cassette in a transgenic DNA construct for genetic alteration when creating organisms that generate numerous foreign genetic instructions (Takita et al., 2013).

In this experiment calcium chloride was used for transformation which shows the increasing transformation activity. According to another study Lim et al., 2015, thier findings, pUC19 is more likely than pBR322 to be affected by calcium chloride’s tendency to increase transformation activity. In particular, pUC19 has a maximum transformation efficiency of 2.5 times greater than pBR322. This data does not support their theory, which assumed that as the concentration of calcium chloride increased, the transformation efficiencies of pBR322 and pUC19 would be comparable. To ensure that their results on transformation efficiency can be compared to those of other articles of a similar kind, we based our analysis on the quantity of plasmid employed. Their model predicted that pBR322 needs more calcium chloride than pUC19 to achieve optimum transformation efficiency. They predicted that pBR322 needs more calcium chloride than pUC19 to achieve optimum transformation efficiency. This is because pBR322 is a bigger plasmid and needs more Ca2+ ions to balance the negative charges (Lim et al., 2015).

 The experiment showed that that cells DS941 grow on LB plates in the presence of Ampicillin plates for ligation, puc19 and water. The ampicillin resistance gene is present on pUC119. From a metastatic human lung cancer, an amplified human sequence was discovered. Several E. coli strains appeared to be affected by a segment of this sequence that is located behind the lac promoter of pUC19. A 369 bp fragment that appeared to cause anomalous plasmid supercoiling was discovered after subclones were built to determine the smallest portion of the human insert that conferred the activity.

Plasmids are widely acknowledged as being the means by which a variety of genes are disseminated in bacterial populations. Recent research has shown that novel plasmids isolated from environmental bacteria are frequently not closely linked to plasmids of clinically significant bacteria that have been thoroughly described. The bulk of plasmid, despite their diversity, can only be classified into a small number of evolutionarily connected groups, according to comparative analysis of the Rep proteins produced by plasmid. The majority of plasmids encode rep proteins, which are crucial for the start of their replication (Kalyaeva et al., 2002).

A surprising outcome was seen when several constructions were added to the minicell-producing strain of E. coli DS410 in order to examine this characteristic. Following their early, normal development, the bacteria clumped up in the late log phase, leaving the medium nearly transparent. For a number of reasons, the maximum specific growth rate (max) of recombinant strains is crucial. Of course, production will be more effective when biomass formation is quick, but even more crucially, growth rate retardation brought on by plasmid maintenance appears to be a contributing element in segregational instability and has critical implications for risk assessment. Our results results showed that DS945 cells shows no grow in the presence of LB/Ampicillin of PUC19, Ligation and Water. At the same time, DS945 cells show growth in the presence of LB plates without ampicillin or water plates. . We describe a method for plasmid selection in E. coli that involves overexpressing a gene required for growth that gives resistance to a specific protein blocker. Without ampicillin, PUC19 showed improved growth, yield, and gene containment in addition to a decrease in the use of drugs and genes that cause antibiotic resistance. These developments appear to be caused by the mechanism of inhibition and a balance of detrimental gene-inhibitor levels required for cell survival and selection. Similar connections suggest that reciprocal inhibition between gene inhibitors may be a common mechanism in other systems (Goh et al., 2008). Because it can be utilised to boost plasmid copy number and yield, the pFab and triclosan system has the potential to be alluring for the synthesis of recombinant proteins. Moreover, the production of biopharmaceuticals, gene therapy products, and other uses requiring the absence of antibiotic resistance sequences or residues may be possible using pFab and its variants. In this experiment, the plates were checked and inoculums for ligations of FC33, PSDC115, DS9456 and DS9457 were made Protocol for mini preparation showed the band for the plasmid, and the PUC19 gel image shows ligation and PUC19 alongside with DNA ladder. The DNA molecules may be quickly and efficiently isolated, recognised, and purified using agarose gel electrophoresis. Using fluorescent dyes, which can identify up to 20 pg of double-stranded DNA by looking at the gel under UV light, the position of DNA can also be detected. Compared to polyacrylamide gels, agarose gels have a lesser resolution power but a more comprehensive range of separation. It is simple and effective to separate, recognise, and purify the DNA molecules using agarose gel electrophoresis. The position of DNA can also be determined using fluorescent probes to stain the gel, which can detect up to 20 pg of the double DNA by scrutinising the gel in UV light. Agarose gels give a more complete range of separation but a substantially inferior resolution power than polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (Pandey et al., 2020).

In gel,  lane 1 which showed DNA ladder, that is the well defined fragment in the gel. Lane 4 which is smaller in size than lane 4 and  contains PSDC115 and PUC19  fragment are moving faster in the gel then the fragment present in lane 2. Monomers of PSDC115 behaved essentially the same way as monomers of FC33 and DS956, except that PUC19 DNA and DS941 generally formed higher levels of Diemers. Monomeric did form PSDC115 visible levels of dimers in FC33 and DS956 strains (Bradburne, 2014). . The intersubunit functionality can, in the simplest case of homodimers, offer extra, shared binding affinity for noncompetitive ligands, mediate conformational as vehicles for regulatory reactions among the two nonoverlapping active sites, and stabilise the dimer in comparison to the monomer . Many enzymes from hyperthermophilic species are higher-order oligomers than their mesophilic equivalents, providing evidence in favour of the stabilizing theory (Thoma et al., 2000).

Shorter DNA fragments passed through the gel matrix’s pores more quickly than longer ones as it runs. The longest fragments of DNA remained close to the wells after the gel has been running for a while, whereas the shortest pieces will be near the positive end of the gel. Each band was made up of several identically sized DNA fragments that have migrated together in groups to the same location. An isolated DNA fragment (or even a modest collection of DNA fragments) wouldn’t showed up on a gel by itself (Rifai, 2017).

In our results there are two types of fragemts was observed mononers and dimers. These findings are consistent with the same investigation that was conducted utilizing Cyclophilin A that is a cytosolic receptor for the immunosuppressive medication cyclosporin A, that has activity as a PPIase. In E. coli M15, the recombinant human CyPA gene has been expressed. Salting-out, Sephacryl S-100, and DEAE-Sepharose CL-6B column chromatography were all used for purification. The spectrometry and SDS-PAGE both revealed the molecular weight to be around 18 kDa. Native-PAGE and western blotting results revealed three bands, which were confirmed by the gel filtration results (Zhang et al., 2020).

Recombinant DNA technology was just a theory in the previous century, suggesting that by controlling the gene expression of targets, desired qualities may be enhanced in living things. However, this sector has recently been shown to have unique effects in improving human existence. Vital proteins can now be produced safely, affordably, and sufficiently to meet dietary and medical demands. This method can address essential aspects of life like increasing food and resources, improving health, and resisting many detrimental environmental consequences. It has transdisciplinary applications (Ling & Shibata, 2002).  Genetically engineered plants, specifically in agriculture, have enhanced resistance to dangerous agents, greater adaptability for higher success, and better production yield. Recombinant medications are also now assured of usage and are swiftly acquiring commercial clearance. Techniques for genetic alteration, gene therapy, and bioremediation are also often used to treat life-threatening disorders. Because of its tremendous development and wide range of applications, this review article primarily focuses on the significance of recombinant DNA technology and its future applications in everyday life (Khan et al., 2016).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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Thoma, R., Hennig, M., Sterner, R., & Kirschner, K. (2000). Structure and function of mutationally generated monomers of dimeric phosphoribosylanthranilate isomerase from Thermotoga maritima. Structure, 8(3), 265-276.

 

Tüzmen, Ş., Baskın, Y., Nursal, A. F., Eraslan, S., Esemen, Y., Çalıbaşı, G., … & Hızel, C. (2018). Techniques for nucleic acid engineering: The foundation of gene manipulation. In Omics technologies and bio-engineering (pp. 247-315). Academic Press.

Throop, A. L., & LaBaer, J. (2015). Recombinational Cloning Using Gateway and In-Fusion Cloning Schemes. Current protocols in molecular biology / edited by Frederick M. Ausubel … [et al.], 110, 3.20.1. https://doi.org/10.1002/0471142727.mb0320s110

Takita, E. I. J. I., Kohda, K. A. T. S. U. N. O. R. I., Tomatsu, H. A. J. I. M. E., Hanano, S., Moriya, K., Hosouchi, T., … & Shibata, D. (2013). Precise sequential DNA ligation on a solid substrate: solid-based rapid sequential ligation of multiple DNA molecules. DNA research, 20(6), 583-592.

Xie, M., Li, R., Liu, Z., Chan, E. W. C., & Chen, S. (2018). Recombination of plasmids in a carbapenem-resistant NDM-5-producing clinical Escherichia coli isolate. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, 73(5), 1230-1234.

Zhang, X. C., Wang, W. D., Wang, J. S., Pan, J. C., & Zou, G. L. (2011). Evidences of monomer, dimer and trimer of recombinant human cyclophilin A. Protein and Peptide Letters, 18(12), 1188-1193.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Dfi8$

Edflh

 

 

 

ja                  Lauzon started frcshman year of high school as a boy, went home sterbreak, and came back as a girl. Other students did not understand— fiullied Lauzon almost every day. Recalling her high school experience in

düo posted to YouTube, she said, “More often than not I went home

1. … I think it might have been easier knowing l wasn’t the only one @öng at home in my bedroom crfüng.” Lauzon is a transgender activist Q’ her thirties not There was no gay—straight alliance or LGBT desbian, jy, bisexual, transgender) support group at her school. There wasn’t even

;9ouTube, Twitter, or an online community she could join as a teen, back before the Internet was widely available.

She posted a video about het own crappy high school esperience as part of the It Gets Better Project. The thousands of It Gets Better videos tar- get LGBT teens for whom suïcide tisk is twice as high as for snaight teens (Russell 4r Joyner, 200t). The message is slmple: For many LGBT people, high school is the worst part of a life that will get better. Lauzon’s message to young people stniggling with depression and bultying is supportive but blunc “Ending your life now is nevec the answer. If I would have done it when I was 13 yeacs old, when 1 was bullied in school, l would have never gotten to expe- rience the amazing life that 1 have now.” Anthropologist Mary Gray has found that online communities are particularly important for LGBT young people fiving in niral areas, for whom local role models might be lacLing (2009).

But if online support is so critical for LGBT youth, why did the It Gcts Better campaign take so long to emerge? Some might argue that the delzy—and clearly Lauzon’s high school experience decades ago shows that

 

 

 

Go Online

 

 

 

 

 

Out There Feds Like You

 

Find Community

 

The It bets Better project overs IC BT teen s rote moans and

support that IN+ey m ght not otherwise have zn rea1 life at see

I GBT bullying has been a problem £or a long cme—is evidence that media are merely a reflec- tion of larger cultural trends. Before it wouid have been possible to get gay, lesbian, uacsgender, and straight people to feel safe enough to publicly pro- claim their support for LGBT youth, broader social changes had to occur. Since Lauzon’s high school

} ears, prohibitions against homosexuals in the mili- tary, against gay marriage, and against adoption of children by homosexual parents have beeti struck do’wn in many places. But wait a second. Weren’t some of these legal challenges successful in part because there have been more positive depictions of gays and lesbians in the medial If Lauzon watched the television shows Martin E future or Roszar» when she was young, she would have seen the firs (fictional) gay marriages. The movie Bye Doy’i C. garnered an Oscar win for Hilary Swam who plnyec Brandon Teena, a transgender character based o

a man whose murder motivated lawmakers to pa hate crime legislation.

What Lsuzon’s participation in the It Gets Bet0 campaign demonstrates is the porou    sometime leading, sometimes following—relationship betwe culture and media, Media and culture have al been closely related, drawing on one another

 

meaning in contexts where there are shifting power differences between ducers and consumers. In this chapter, we will explore iheit relationship. producers, consumers, advertisers, or some complicated Gz rute of a[l t determine what we read, heat, and see in the media-saturated environ In this chapter we first take a look at culmre to explain whar this som slipper} term has meant for social scientists. Then we look at how c and the media Intersect to shape values, behefs, and practices in contem

 

 

 

 

Definitions of Culture

Culnire is a vague term that we use to rationalize many behaviors and all sorts of peoples and patterns. We talk about a cutture of pover Uruted States (see Cha9ter 10). We hear about corporate cultures cultures, culture wars, the clash of cultures, culture shock, and even

 

 

Cftagte¥ 3: Culture and Nedia

 

 

 

 

obal scal     Culmre is casually used as shorthand for many meanin@ÜfolTi innate biological tendencies to social institu-

ing in between.

 

 

Human-Naure

 

 

iy that cultute is the sum of the social categories and concepte we addition to our órliefs, behaviors (except the instinctual ones), and other words, culture is everything but nature.

: sentence captures exactly how culture has been defined through in opposition to nature. The word w/lars derives from the LaÓn verb culiivate or iill’3, suggesting the refinement of crops to meet human le still use r«ú«re as a verb in a similar sense, as when we culture bacte- ietri dish.) The more comrnon meaning of mfú‹re as a noun developed e same kirid of human control and domination over natute. We could

t culture began when humans started nc 8 •’ the architects of nature üng crops rather than hunting and gathering, hence the terms ‹r@r»Are iú»rr (gtowing fish and other aquadc organisms for human consump- ‘ating back centuries, the term Herr has referred to the distincàon i what is natural—what comes dírectíy from the earth and follows the

›f physicwand that is modified or created by humans and follows (or

) the laws of the state. Thar said, culture is both the technology by which s have come to dorrünate namre and the belie£ systems, ideologies, and

bolic representacions that constitute human existence.

In the fifteenth century, when European nations organized expeditions to

• nd commerce and establish colonies in North America, Afzica, and Asta, Western peoples confronted nou-Western natives. The beliefs and behaviors of these peoples served as a foil to European cultura. Today, we recognize that cujtcte is aÏways éÍaúve. de cannot taÏk sbour cu]Mre Trhout Yeference to the global world, but the defiiutions, practices, and concept that we use in this chapter largely emanate £rom a Western viewpoint. It may also be easier to identify cultural elements when they are different from our own. The challenge in this chapter will be to take what we see as natural and view it as a product of culture. We’ll also explore the media and the role they play in the birth and dissem icâon of culmce.

 

 

Culture = (Superior} Man — (Inferior) Man

 

A8 coloniali6m led to increased interaction with non-Westerners, Europeans came to recognize that much of what they took for granted as natural was not. Alternative ways of living existed, as manifested in a variety of living

 

 

Definitions ot Culture

Cuttuze a set o/ belieJs, tiad›ttons. and practices; the sum of the soc al categories and concegts we emb ace iv aóditíon to beïiefs, behaviors ’excep‘ ”–*”–“ “’   ‘

an4 pract ces, everythtng but the natural enyiionment

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

75

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

the real world. Plato argues that God is the ideal form of anything. A carpenter, for example, tries to construct a material embodiment of that ideal form. H starts with a vision, the divine vision of what a chair or table should look like and he works his hardest to bting that vision to friiiöon. Of course, it ca new ct óe perfect; it can never approximate the platonic ideal.

The artist’s job, in contrast, is to re9reieiit the ideal within the realm of real. In fact, there’s a long history’ of artists attempting to represent the İd female in sculpture and painting, bi4t in reality no woman could ever exist flawless object, content to be gazed upon. jean Auguste Dominique Ingres’. Grande Odaüsgue has an unreahstically long spine, allowing her to ap smooth, supple, and gracefully elegant as she shows us her backside but her face to meet the viewer’s gaze with a hint of a smile. In this concepsoi art—and this understanding of cultur                                there is a single, best example of element in the world, from the ideal woman to the ìdeal form of governn to the ideal ciózen, which humanity ought to emulate. Furthermore, we see the ideal woman (and meal and family and governmental structure) is a nod on, chariging from one place to another and across time periods, Ca ideal be discovered, as Plato believed, or is it constructed*

 

 

 

Material versus Nonmaterial Cultur

 

 

Wonmateziat cuïłare va’u< , betîe/s, behaviors, ąîtd *ociêt

Today, we tend to think that everything ìs a component of culture. is a way of ljfe created by humans, whatever is not natural, Jg can culture into norunaterial culture, which includes values, behefs, beha?

 

78     Ghaptei $: Culture and Media

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

inguage, Meaning, and Concepts

 

no one says “Io»ñ” when a stranger sneezes in the grocery store. In meeting someone for the first time, but holding packages in your right hand, have you instead extended your left in greeting* In Saudi Arabia, this action would be

construed as highly disrespectful. Have you ever taken public transpormtion during rush hour? Do the passengers waiting to board generally rriose aside to let people off the train first? In Moscow, nobod}• steps aside; in Japan, people matt so long that they pre.ctically miss the train! In England, pants are called “trousers,” women’s underwear “pants,” suspenders “braces,” and garter belts

“suspenders.” You can imagine the confusion that would ensue if an American businessman told his English client he needed to find a shop where he could bu)’ new pants and suspenders because his luggage had been lost. The English- man would either assume the American was a cross-dresser or send him to a lingerie shop to buy something special for his wife. Even your sociology class                                                                                                     ’ probably has a different culture—language, meanings, symbols—from a biol- ogy or dance class.

Another way to thjnk about culture is that it is a may of organizing our experience. Take our symbols, foc example. What does n red light mean? It could mean that an alarm is sounding. tt could mean that sociething is X-rated (the “red-light” district in Amsterdam, for instance). It could mean “stop.” There is nothing inherent about the meaning of the red hght. It is embedded within our larger culture and therefore is part of a web of meanings. You can- not change one without affecting the others.

Culture even includes our language. According to the Sapir-Whorf thesis in linguistics, the language we speak direcdy influences (and reflects) the way we think about and experience the world. On a more concrete level, if you speak another language, you understand how certain meanings can become lost in uanslation—you can’i always say ezacdy what you want. Many English words here been adopted               ot}tez languages, often ąs s[sng, such os óeufi artd /e we                   nd in French. Some stsunch tzadióonałists ze opposed to such bq -‘ rowing because they regard ir as a threat to their culture. How many word do we have for college* How central does that make higher education to o society? Many words describe the srate of b’eing intoxicated. What does tha say about our culture?

Concepts such as race, gender, class, and inequality are part of our cu1 as well. If you try to explain the American undersmnding of racial differed’ to someone from another country, you might feel frustrated, because it

not resonate with him or her. That’s because meanings are etribed’ ded. ,

wider sense of cuiturai understanding; you cannot just estract concepts f ” theit c‹intext and assume that their meanings will retain a like of their of some cases, when oppostng concepts come into contact, one will neckń usurp the othet. Por example, when Europeans first encountered them, N( Americans believed that owning land was similar to the way Americans . feel about owning air—a resource that was very difficult to put a price on‘

 

 

80     CŁaptet 3: Culiure and Media

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

‘el

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

ited

understood as a collective responsibility. From a real-estate perspective, Europeans must have been very excited. (“All this land and »oboVy owns 3 The issue was not a language barrier: Native Americans had a social er that had nothing to do with assigning ownership to pieces of the earth.

:nng on their concepts of: ownership, Europeans thus began the process of isplacing native peoples from their homelands and attacking them when

 

 

 

ded

 

 

esis

 

 

 

Ash

 

 

rds hat

 

 

lay

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

ad

Ideology

 

Nonmaterial culture, in its most abstract guise, takes the form of ideology. Ideology is a system of concepts and relationships, an understanding of cause and effect. For example, generally on airplanes you’re not allowed to use the

. toilets in the first-class cabin if you have a coach-class ticket. Why no t? tt’s not as if the lavatories in first class are thar much better. What’s the big deal? We subscribe to an ideology that the purchase of an airline ticket at the coach, business, or first-class fare brings with it certain service expectations-that an expensive £irst-class ticket entitles a passenger to priority access to the lava- tory, more leg room, and greater amenities, such as warm face towels. The ideology is embedded within an entire sedes of suppositions, and if you cast aside some of them, they will no longer hold together as a whole. IN everyone flying coach started to hang out in first class, chatting with the flight atten- dants and using the first-class toilets, the system of class strati£cation (in air planes at least) would break down. People would not be willing to pay extra for a iirst-class ticket; more airlines might go bankrupt, and the industry itself would erode.

Even science and religion, which may seem like polar opposites, are both ideological frameworks. People once believed that the sun circled acound the earth, and then, in the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries, along came Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo, and this system of beliefs was turned inside

 

 

Material versus Nonmaterial Culture

 

 

 

 

 

 

ideology a system o£ concepts and relationships, an understandir+g of cause and effect.

 

r •-••<-     –      . •.-

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Cutura1 zealirism takirtg into account the d*fferences

across cututes without gassfng judgmezl or assigritng vąlue.

out. The earth no longer lay at the center of the universe but orbited the sun. This undeistanding represented a major shift in ideology, and it was not an easy one to make. In a geocentric universe, humans living on earth stand at its center, and this idea corresponds to Christian notions that humans are the lords of the eatth and the chosen children of God. However, when we view the eaith as a rock orbiting the sun, just like seven other plancts and countless subpłanetary bodies, we may feel sigriificantly less special and have to adjust our notion of humanity’s special role in the uińvetse. People invest a lot in their belief systemu, and those wiio go against the status quo and qucstion the prevailing ideology may be severely puriished, as was Galileo.

More receritly, the 2000 presidential clecdon had the potential to shatter the ideology of democracy—that is, the behcf that the candidate who zeceives the most votes ascends to power. The winner of the popular vote, Al Gors was in fact defeated by George W Bush, wŁo accumulated the requisite num- ber of Electoral College votes after the Supreme Court interceded on the mat- : ter of voter irregulaóties in Florida, the tie-breaker state. The concept of the: Electoral College ęoon becarrie a hot topic od debate, but the final electioit iesult did not prompt riots in die streec. As it turned out, the eritire ideology of Amencan democracy did not crurnble.

Of course, on occasion ideologies do shatter. The fall of the former Sovi Union, for example, marlred not just s tnnsition in government but the sha tering of a particular brand of Commurfist ideology. Similaily, when aparthei was abolished in South Afiica, more than just a few laws changed; a total reo ganization of ideas, beliefs, and social telations followed. Often, ideologi change comes more slowly. The fight ton women’s rights, including equal pa ” oogolng even todar but womcn won the right to vote way bac/c in 1920.

 

 

SudyngCuhue

The scholarly smdy of culture began in the £eld of anthropology in the U States. Franz Boas founded ilie first PhD program in anthropology •t Cop bra University in the early i 930s and developed the concept of cultural r ity. Ruth Benedict, following Boas, hef teacher and mentor, coined thd”‘ literal relati         in her book Pattie of Gore (1534). Cultural relativism.’ taifing into account the differences across cultures without passing jod, or assigriing value. For example, in the United States you are expected someone in the eye when you talk to him or her, but in China this is con rude, and you generally divert your gaze as a sign of respect. Neither ’

is iriherendy right or wrong. By employing the concept of culniral rna we can understand difference for the sake of increasing our knowledg the world. Cultural relativism is also impormnt for businesses th’ at ci

a global scale.                                                                                              •

 

 

 

82     Oliaptet 3: Culture and Media

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

alic meanings they attach ro it, just as Geertz learned such things Jnese by using cockfiglits as the center of his analysis. jyprprelation of CulMrei (1973), perhaps his most famous book, te, “Culture is a system of inherited conceptions expressed in sym

» by means of which people communicate, perpetuate, and develop pledge about and attr tudes toward life” (p. 89). He was trying to get a monolithic detuition of culture. So for some, culture is watching

jjt small, hard ball into a field and run around a diamond; for others,

.wn in the dust beside a ring and watching Evo roosters brawl. stime isn’t inherently better than the other. They’re both interesting in o’ri right, and by understanding the sigriificance of these events for the people, we can better understand their lives.

 

 

iculture

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

;tSf

 

 

ie

e culture, subculture as a concept can be a moving target: It’s hard ro lock i one specific deTuition of the term. Historically, s ubcultures have been ned as groups united by sets of concepts, values, symbols, and shared eaning specific to the members of that 6’oup. Accordingly, they frequentl} e seen as vulgar or deviant and are often marginalized. Part of the original ipetus behind subculture studies was to gain a deeper understanding of indi- duals and groups who traditionally have been dismissed as weirdos at best nd deviants at worst.

For example, man} music genres have affiliated subcultures: hip-hop, hard core, punk, Christian rock. High-school cliques may verge on subcultures—the jocks, the band kids, the geeks—although these groups don’t really go against the dominant society, because ath1eticisrr+, musical talent, and intelligence are fairly conventional values. But what about the group of kids who dress in black

ear heavy eyeliner? Maybe teachers simply see them as moody teenagers with a penchant for dark fashion and extreme makeup just seeking to annoy the adults in their life, but perhaps their style of self-presentation means more to them.

Goth culture has its roots in the United Kingdom of the 1980s. It emerged as an offshoot of post-punk music. Typified by a distinctive style of dress— namely, black clothing with a Victorian flair—and a general affinity for gothic and death rock, goth culture has evolved over the last three decades, Cth many internal subdivisions. Some goths are more clrawn to magical or religious aspects of the subculture, whereas others focus mainly on the music. Even the term goth has different meanings to people within the subculture: Some see it as derogatory; some appropriate it for their own personal mearñng. An internal struggle has grown over who has the right to claim and define tHe label.

What makes today’s goths a subculture? They are not just a random group of people in black lis herring to music (classical musicians usually wear black

 

Mate ri a1 versus Norrmate rial Culture

Subculture the clistinct cultural values and behavioral patterns of a particular group in society, a group united

by sets o1 concepts, values, symbols, and shared meaning specific to the members of that 9iou9 distinctive enough to d stir gal ish it from otfitezs within the same cub lure or

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Cultural Effects: Give and Take

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Reflection Theory

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

äl1 by the

 

choices we make? No. Most people now understand that an interactive process exists between culnire and social structure. Most would agree that culture has an impact on society and is not just a unidirectional phenomenon.

 

Ztedia

 

 

 

 

Me‹tia any formats. platforms, or vehicles tfiat carry present.

.                ..«  … «              > ‹»

Among the most pervasive and visible forms of culture in modern societies are those produced by the mass media. We might define media as any formats or vehicles that carry, present, or communicate information. This definition would, of course, include newspapers, periodicals, magazines, books, pam- phlets, and posters. But it would also include wax tablets, sky writing, web pages, and the children’s game of telephone. We’li flisr discuss the history of the media and then tackle theory and empirical studies.

 

From the Town drier to the Facebook Wall: A Brief History

 

When we talk about the media, we’re generally talking about the mass media. The first form of mass media was the book. Before the invention of the print- ing press, the media did exist—the town crier brought news, and royal mes- sengezz uavHeb by horseback, every now and then hopping off to read a scroll—but they did not exacdy reach the masses. People passed along most information by word of mouth. After the 1440s, when Johannes Gutenbei developed movable type for the printing press, text could be printed mu more easily Books and periodicals were produced and circulated at m greater rates and began to reach mass audiences. Since that time the t media arid uoiJ medls have become virtually synonymous.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

90         Chagte¥ 3: Culture aztd Media

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

he innovations didn’t stop there, however. In the t 880s along came mother invention: the moving picture or silent film. Its quality was not the best

.r fitst, but it improved over time. In the 1920s sound was added to films. For many, this represented an irrrprovement over the radio, which had come along out the same time as the silent film. Television was invented in the i930s, though this technolog}’ didn’t make its way into most American homes Wti1 after U’oild War II. During the postwar period, new forms of media tech- nolog’ quickly hit the market, and the demand for media exploded: glossy magazines; color televisions; blockbuster movies; Betarriax videos, then VHS videos, then DVDsi vinyl records, then eight-track tapes, then cassette tapes, then CDs—and once the Internet came along, the sky was the limit! In 2013, 70 percent of the American population had broadband at home, with access flustered among the younger, wealthier, and better educated (Zickuhr &

Smith, 2013).

You’re well aw’are of all the forms the media come in, but let’s stop for a minute and contemplate the impact certain forms, such as television, have had on society. Again, televisions didn’t become household items in the United States until after World War II. From 1950, the year President Harry S. Truman ftrst sent military advisors to South Viemarri, to t 964, when Congress approved the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution calling for isctory by any means nec essary, the share of American households with television sets increased from

 

Media       91

 

9 to 92 percen r. During the Vietnam Uar, the American public witnessed mili tary conflict in a way they netter had before, and these images helped fuel the antiwar movement. Likewise, television played a large role in the civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s. I t was one thing to hear of discrimination secondhand, but quire another to sit ‘ith your family in the living room and watch images of police setting attack dogs on peaceful protesters and turning fire hoses on little African American girls dressed up in their Sunday best,

 

 

Hegemony: The Mother of All Media Terms

 

 

 

 

 

£feqemony a condi iron by which a dominant group uses its power to elicit the volunitary ‘consent’ of ttie masses

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

I l

 

All of us might be willing to agree that, on some level, the media both reflect culture and wr›rk to produce the ver} culture they represent. How does tlus dynamic work? Antonio Gramsci, an Italian political theorist and activist, came up Cth the concept of hegemony to describe just that. Gramsci, a Marxist, was imprisoned by the Fascists in the 1920s and 1 930s; while in jail, he attempted to explain u hy the working-class revolution Marx had predicted never came to pass. He published his findings in his “prison notebooks” of 1929—55 (Gramsci, 1971). In this vein, then, hegemony “refers to a historical process in which a dominant group exercises ‘moral and intellectual leadership’ through- out socie9• by winning the voluntary ‘consent’ of popular masses” (Kim, 200t). This concept of hegemony stands in contrast to another of Gramsci’s ideas, domination. If domination means getting people to do what you want through the use of force, hegemony means getting them to go along with the sta- tus quo because it seems like the best course or the natural order of things, Although dorriinadon generally involves an action by the state (such as the fascist leaders who imprisoned those who disagreed with them), “hegemony takes place in the rea1tn of private institutions . . . such as families, churchs trade unions, and the media” (Kim, 2001). For example, if free-market capiJ- ism is the hegemonic economic ideology of a given socie 9, then the state d

not have to explicidy work to inculcate that set of principles into its citize Rather, private institutions, such as families, do most of the heavy lifting in regard. Ever wonder why children receive an allowance for taking out the m and doing other household chores? Gramsci might argue that djs is the . capitalist free-market ideology is insulled in the individual within the pti realm of the family.

The concept of hegemony is important for understanding the impact the media. It also raises questions about the tension between struck agency. Are people molded by the culture in which they live, or do they 8C participate in shaping the world around them? As we discussed earli6t chapter, it’s not an either/or question. Below v e’ll talk about some of* debates between structure and agency with regard to the media, look at S examples of hegemony in practice, and discuss the possibilities for coUtlt tural resistance.

 

 

9Z     Chap ter 3: Culture and Meaia

 

 

 

 

dia Life Cycle

iø ø yødia-satura red society, but one of the most exciting aspects of the media İS that it allows us ro explore the tensions and contradic- ated when large social forces conflict with individual idenuty and free ïe see how people create media, how the media shape the culture in people ńve, how the media reflect the culture in which they exist, and ividuals and gto’aps use the media as their own means to shape, rede-

, and change culture.

 

 

 

 

 

do the adventures in a dairy tale o£ten begin once a mother dies? Are

:ks more often portrayed as professionals or criminals in television sitcoms? ow often ate Asians the lead characters in mainstream fìlmsP Who generally uates conversańon, men ot women, in U.S. (or Mexican) soap operas? These quesńons are all examples of textual analysis, analysis of the content of media its various forms, one of the important strands of study to materialize in the

ke of Gramsci’s work.

DurÍng the 1960s and 1970s, academic z nsãies focused almost solely on texts—television talk shows, newspapers, magazine pages. Finally, scholars reef ognizeö the importance of finding out how people read and interpret, and are affected by bese texts: Audience studies wete born. The held of psychology has expended a lot of time investigating clsims about the effects of televi- sion on children, and the debate continues. Sociologists have explored the way women read romance novels or how teenage girls interpret images of super- thin models in magazines. For example, in Reedïżg /ée Romatice: Women, P‹itriarcłzf,

«d fØ»ñr U/ermo (1987), Janice Radway argues that women exhibit a great deaÎ of individual agency when reading romance novels, which helps them cope with their daily hves in a patriarchal society by providing both escapes fr rri the drudgery of everyday life and alternative scripts to their readers. We are not just passive receptors of media; as readers or viewers, we es9erìence texts through the lens of our own critical, interpteove, and analytical processes.

 

 

Back to the Beginning: Cultural Production

 

The media don’t just spontaneously spring into being. They aren’t orgarùc; they’re produced, You may have heard the expression “History is written by the winners.” Well before something becomes history, it has to happen in the pres- ent. Who decides what’s news? How are decisions made xbout the content of television shows? To write his classic Deciding What s I•fews (l 979a), Herbert

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Media Effects

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

LON ß—T E II’t

 

 

 

 

THE BACE AND sENDEP9OL!TlCá

 

 

 

 

 

’when not required by the plot or for proper chatactenzation.’

• Meta+ads of crime (e.g.. safe-cracking,

”                          arson, smuggling) were not to be exglfcitly

presented.

• References to ’sex perversion’ (such as tromosexualityl and venereal disease were forbtdden, as were depictions of

 

 

 

“ fien /’m“good, /’m ve/ good.          ” ” ” ” ”              ”” bul wAen T”m óad 7in óerTw.“                     —ACTRE SS DE WEST

 

‘’:  ‘                         The moyie inQustry’s Production Gode enu-

merateü th ee “general pnncip1es“’

 

* ’ ‘*                           2. No p›cture stall be produced that will

–                                 lowe the moral standards of those wbo

see it. Hence the sympathy of the audience should never be thTown to the side of exime, wrongóotng. evii, or sin.

2. Colect stanaatds of subject only to the

reputiements of drama and entertainment.

sball be presented.

3. Law, natura] or humarL stall not be

nar shalt sympathy be created for its violation.

 

Specific  zestzictions  were spelted out  as

‘particular appltcations” of these p inciples:

• Nudity and suggestive dances were

• Tne language section banned various words and phrases considered to be
• Rur6er scenes bud to be fitrned in a way that would not inspire imitation in real and brutal killings could riot be shown in detail. . ’Revenge in modern times‘ was not to be justified.
• the sanctity of maYriage and the home

had to be upheld. “Pictures sfall not infer -”* tl at low forms of sex relationship are the , accepted or common thing.” Adulte gnd illicit sex, altoough recognized as sometim necessary to the plot, could not be explicit justified; they were never to be presented an attractive optton.         ‘’

• PortzayaTs of intermciat relationships were *

forbidden.

• “Scenes of passion” were not to be introduced when not essential lo the plót “Excessive and tustful kissing” was to be avoided, along with any otbe physical

interaction that might “stimJ late the low,

and baser element.”                           “. ‘

• The flag of the United States was to bé ‘ treated as were the peop! ‘’ history’ of other nations. ‘‘

 

 

 

 

 

,        ,        . .                        .. ..,     ,        ’””’ ”’                    ’

r         v”

<

 

. ‘  .’        ’ ‘ ”           –     ‘ ” *“ “!’* ” -*           ‘•‹

”         ””  ” .”  :        ’’”     ””. . ” :’       *

 

 

comrriit violent crimes*” And the response wilt be, “That is not my intention at all. I use violence as a metaphor.” Scientific research hasn’t yet ruled dehrñtlvelj’ one way or the other or this conuoversial subject, bur man)’ beheve that the media occasionally have short-term, unintended effects.

Finally, section D of die illustration represents the long-term, unintended effects of the media. many people, not just cultural conservatives, argue that we have been desensitized to violence, sexuai imager j, and oder content that some people consider inappropriate for mass audiences. In the film industry; for example, the Production Code, also known as the Harm Code, was a set of standards created in 1930 (although it wasn’r officiallj enforced until 1934) to protect the moral fabric of society. The guidelines were fairly strict, and they were a testament to the mainstream ideologies of the time (see the box on pages 96-97). Slow.ly, however, the power of the code began to erode because of the ›minence of telemsion, foreign films, arid the fact that being condemned as immoral didn’t prevent a Um from becorriing a success. In ] 9G7 thy 5c›d2 was abandoned for the movie rating system. Over time, we have grown accus- tomed to seeing sexually explicit material In films, on television, and on the Internet. Those who lament this desensi6zation seek to reinstimte controls over media content.

 

 

Mommy, Where Do  te e   pes

home From?

Racism in the Media

 

On December 22, 1941, two weeks efter the ]apanese attack on Pearl Harbor, Time magazine ran an article titled “How to Tell Your Friends from the Japs.” There were annotated photographs to help readers idenñfy characteristics thai would distinguish, for instance, friendly Chinese from the ]apanese, American enemies during World War II. The magazine offered the following rules or iliumb, although it admitted that they mere “not always reliable”:

• Some Chinese are tall (average: S 5 in.), Virtually all ]apanese are short (a erage: 5 ft. 2-’Zz in.).
• japanese are likely to be stockier and broadet-hipped than short Chines

 

• japanese xcept for wrestlers—are seldom fat; they often dry up and * grow lean as they the Chinese often put on weight, particulñl/ „ if they are prosperous (in China, with its frequent famines, being fit iS esteemed as a sign of being a solid citizen). ›i
• Chinese, not as hairy as japanese, seldom grow an impressive mull

 

 

98      Chapter $’ Culture and Media

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Sexism in the Media

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

lid

 

 

he

torizing and perpetuating unrealistic ideals of feminine beauty. Some rat repetitive bombardment by these images decreases girls’ sell-esreem tributes to eating disorders. Women’s magazines have been heavily crit- although some researchers (such as Angela McRobbie from the United pm) have taken care to show that women who are active, critical readers ijoy reading women’s magazines. However, as the Canadian sociologist Currie points out 1999), although girls can choose which magazines, if read and iIOw rO Critically read them, they can’t control the images avail- them in those and other texts.

other focus of feminist media critiques has been images of violence nst women. jean IObourne has become one of the most popular lecturers ollege arid university campuses across America. In 1979 she released a film ed U/log Ui lofty: Ndrrm/i»g i Image o/ Pomsn, in which she examines the

/s in which women are maimed, sliced, raped, and otheruñse deformed in vertising images. One classic example is a photo that shows the image of a

.man’s body in a garbage can, with only her legs and a fantastic pair of high els on her feet visible. The message is clear: These shoes are, literally, to die

1. Kilbourne’s point is clear, too: Such images help sustain a kind of symbolic olence against women. In this critique, advertising does not just reflect the derlying culture that produced it but also creates desires and narratives that

enter women’s (and mens) hves with causal force.

Of course, there’s always room for innovation. Some girls (with the help of their parents) have responded by creating their owri magazines that focus on topics other than makeup, clothing, and boys, as mainstream teenage maga- zines do. for example, New doo» G/r/i is written and edited by girls aged 8 to 13 and contains no advertisements. Likewise, magazines exist for adult women that have more pro-woman messages; Mr. magazine was founded in 1971 dur-

 

Because such magazines don’t accept advertising from huge makeup compa- nies and designer fashion houses, however, they are often less economically viable rhan mainstream worr+en s magaxines, which carry ads on as many as 50 percent of their pages. Brick magazine (“Its a noun; it‘s a ver t’s a maga- zine’3, which has been around since t 996, is a self-declared feminist response to pop culture. It is supported by advertisers but is a not-for-profit publication.

Some advertisers have responded to feminist critiques of the media Cth new approaches. In 2005 Dove. a manufacmrer of skin-care products, launched a new seties of ads backed by a social awareness program called rhe Campaign for Real Beauty. Instead of models, the ads featured “real” women complete with freckles, frizz}• hair, wrinkles, and cellulite. The images were intentionally meant to offer a contrast to the images we’re accustomed to seeing. And, as Dover advertisers have said, “firming the thighs of a size 2 supermodel is no challenge” (Triester, 2005). The latest version of Dove’s Real Beauty campaign shows side by-side sketches of tire same woman as drawn by a sketch artist. The first image is drawn based on the woman’s description of herself and

 

Mom my. Wher e Do Stereotypes Come From?      101

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

oł the Media

 

 

 

 

 

 

iple, Apple’s iTunes app store is the dominant player in the sales of

• S Apple demands to review every app to ensure that the is not something that they “believe is over the line,” which they go on in is something developers   i•  >osv when they cross it. This type e policy tends to promote a “chilling effect” whereby developers—

j        g where this mystical “liae” is—choose to avoid and content they tnight be at all objectionable. Receiving Apples approval is important use once developers have made an app for Apples iOS platform, they ot sell it .nywhere but the iTunes store. Is Apple protecting its shoppers ir+g the app developers through a combination of monopoly power and owy threats? As corporate control of the media becomes more and more ized (owned by fewer and fewer groups), the concern is that the range opinions available will decrease and that corporate censorship (the act of

9pressing information that may reflect negatively on certain companies and/or ir affiliates) will further compromise the already-tarnished integrity of the

tream media.

The Internet, to some extent, has balanced out communications monopo- as s. It’s much easier to put up a website expressing alternative views than it is to ‘roadcasr a television or radic› program suggesting the same, The MIT Center

or Fumre Civic media, led by Ethan Zuckerman, works to leverage the Inter- net fot the promotion of local acfivism. One of the MIT projects—VGAZA or Virtual Gaza—allowed Palestinians in the Gaza Strip to document crises and share local stories glohally while under embargo. But not even the Internet is beyond the realm of pohtical economy. Srrialler sites, for example, cannot afford ro have sponsored links on Google’s search pages.

 

 

Consumer Culture

 

America is often described as a consumer culture, and rightly so. In my inter- her’ with sociologist Allison rugh, she pointed out that “corporate marketing to cluldren is a 22 billion dollar industry.” She then added, “Children 8 to 11 ask for beoveen W’o and four toys [for Christmas], and they receive eleven on aver- age!” (Conley, 2011a). Sales on mxjor patriotic holidays (Veterans Day, Memo- rial Day, Presidents’ Day) thrive as a tesult of the notion that it is our duty as American citizens to be good shoppers. As Sharon Zukin points out in her book on shopping culture, Point of Pyrcñai•.- How’ Xboppi’ng Changed American Cul- ture (2003), 24 hours after the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, h4ayot Rudy Giuliani urged New Yorkers to take the day off and go shopping. It’s the tie that binds our society; everyones got to shop. iialls are our modern day marketplaces—they are where teenagers hang out, where elderly suburbanites get their exercise, and where Europeans come as tourists to see what Ameri- can culture is all about. The term ru»rrrrfm, however, refers to more than

 

 

Political Economy ot the Media

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Coneumezism fhe steady acqois t on of material possessions. o/ten with fhe belief that happiness

aod MU\ment can tints be achieved

 

 

 

just buying merchandise; it refers to the belief thxt happiness and fulfilment can be achieved through the acquisidon of matenA possessions. Versace, j. Crew, and realtors in certain hip neighborhoods are not just peddling shoes, jeans, and apart- ments. They are also selling a self-image,

a lifestyle, and a sense of belonging and                                                                  i*? self-wonh. The media, and advertising in particular, play a large role in the creation

and maintenance of consumerism.

 

 

Advertising and Children

 

The rise of the consumer-citizen has met with increasing criticism, but how doe our society produce these consumer

citizens* The Canadian author and activi                                                                     ‘

Naomi Klein published No Logo.- TaN»g km at the Brand Bellies N 2000; in thi book Klein analyzes the growth of advertising in schools. Pepsi and Co Cola now bargain for exclusive rights to sell their products witkin schools, brand-name fast foods are often sold in cafeterias The logos of compani that sponsor athletic fields are displayed prominendy. This has been commo place in many colleges and universities for some time now, but the increas’ presence of advertising in middle and high schools should also be noted. .

One striking example is Channel One, which has been airing in sch around the United States since 1990 (Rhode Island was the only state to re Channel One funding). In exchange for television sets, video equipment, satellite dishes, schools are required to show 12 minutes of prepackaged -‘ granuning every day. Although Channel One provides news and public af informañon, its programming also includes to minutes of commerciâi 12-minute segment. One analysis found that only 20 percent of air devoted to “recent political, economic, social, and cultural stories”; the r ing 80 percent of the prepackaged programming includes sports, weath other topics, as well as advertisements for Channel One itself. Studie found that Channel One cosr taxpayers JI.8 billion a year in lost schoo;t

of that amount, $300 million was lost to commercials alone (Molnar & S 1998). Meanwhile, Channel One charges advertisers almost $200,000 I 30-second segment. Channel One is disproportionately found in lowei-

schod disnicts that struggle with funding for books and technologji rti

disadvantaged students in these schools are exposed to more adver ’ and fewer academic lessons than their peers in systems that can afford this kind of sponsorship.                                   ‘

 

104    Chagte¥ 3• Cuttu¥e auld Media                                                                                                          -‘

 

CO

Jo”

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Culture Jams: Hey Calvin, How ’Bout Giving That Girl a Sandwich?

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

What’s in a Name?

 

iy kids E and Yo Xing Heyno Augustus Eisner Alexander Weiser so forgive me if I didn’t see what all the fuss was about when Kan}e Kim Kardashian named their daughter North (West). Afrer all, she

ies such as France or]apan, there is no U.S. law that constrains what oe our offspring; only names that would be considered abusive can ed. Names present a unique measure of culture: There are few rules, stitutions attempt to directly influence our choices, unlike almost her aspect of culture from food to firm to fashion. Thus, trends in

:e as close to a pure, unmediated, reflective mirror of societal culture

 

that light, one could say it was almost inevitable that West and Kar- n chose a unique name for their child. On the one hand, there’s a long

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

ced

elm)

1. Remember Moon Unit Zappa? Born in 1967, she was perhaps one rst notable celebrity offspring given a “weird” moniker. The 1960s was

ge of Aquarius, after all. Besides her own siblings, she was followed by

.italized “america,” the child of Abbie Hoffman; and Free, the span of ara Hershey and David Carradine, just to mention a few. Fast toward «o ieth Paltrow’s daughter, Apple Martin, and it should come as no surprise

 

The more interesting sociological phenomenon that North West embodies,

 

fler

black man, is the rise of unique black names, Atound the

 

e time celebrities started thinking up names that otherwise served as nouns, rbs, or adjectives, African Americans began to abandon long-standing nam- ag patterns. Until the civil rights movement, a typical black name might have ‘ecu Franklin or florence. But then black power happened. Blacks wanted to assert their individuality and break ties frotn the dominant society, so the proportion of unique names—those chat appear in birth records only once for

 

Until about 1960, the proportion of unique names for white Americans hovered around 20 percent for girls. For blacks ir had always been higher— around 30 percent. During the 1960s, the number of white girls with unique names started to inch up to about 25 percent, but for blacks, it literally sky- docketed, peaking around i 9T at more than 50 percent for girls and reaching almost 40 percent for boys in 1975 (hased on Illinois data). Harvard sociolo- gists Stanie} Lieberson and Kelly S. Mikelson, who examined this trend in a

 

 

 

 

107

 

 

 

 

 

 

1995 pap     followed it only through the 1980s. But 1’d be * tp guess that the practice has contin- ned Tt a similar rate (Ligberson & Milrelson, 1995). p   ght think Chat all this name coinage

would lead to gender COflfusion in kindergartens. rough I M  pt advocating gender rigidity, there

is some evidence that gender-ambiguous names :’ c•» cause problems fOr boys. EconOmiSt David’ pÍgJio hound /áÜ “  /* nam4•d Sub” tend to get.

i•‹o gore trouble at SchOOl dfottfld sixtli grade,’

when QUb€f/  tS (2007)

got ¡t sms o»i thet even unique names are

band

ers o

’.’.      them

,

’ %d ‹

 

gendedred.en Lieberson

and Milrelson gave

 

á

{¡$t       ique names they found in time Illinois             ‘ . ,

database to re•@Jdents, the vast majority idend-

fied the gender of the acnial child—for excl                                                                                      ‘

 

experienc°      fO s this. Nobody mistaires Yo for

1’, nt_e. M•whilc, three other Es, who he

 

,host ay daughter’s name from my public’

rñü

 

Ags, nte      to me. (SO ml3ch for uriique .. . ) T

of them were female, bringing the total to 75

Cert female. I °  2      Sk I had 25 other kids:so,

test the gender of every letter in the .alp

could

bet. If you ink  I’m crazy, move to Paris. :. ‘

 

 

 

N0u 0f

 

fl Chapter opened

th a descriptioÇ Of how sevez£ suicidas gave üs

 

” +’°nzy of YouTube videos and may have eben made it easier for Pre

follar         ugh on his campaign prornise to dó

tell segre tjon policy in the U.S. military. Nós’

áP› yoll can see why )át          uito s story is part of a discussion of cultur

medio. Bat the fact Mat YOuTube’s parent company, Google, ís making’

 

°ir all of the trafíic •’sociate^ “*    “’  Ir G”s

Better Project speaks to th

 

dWentalnature Of media and M        in our society. Remember that. Ó

 

the sociologist is to «ee as

psiructed What iS usually taken for gran:

 

8 *’ay, It Gets Bgtt« asruptedthe mesa gow; the campzign makes me ’

dtjcers out of pyple who are ty2lC 7 corisumers of the largely gay-*’

 

tepJeySi

and even vicóms of the thug-like beM

 

pe  ,he ca           crs just getting on the ceIebri@

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

consume6sm, it’s based on the notion that advertisements are basically props ganda. Culture jamming differs from appropriating advertisements for the say of art and sheer vandalism (where the sole goal is destrucdon of propertj§ although advertisers probably don’t care too much about this latter distinctiof Numerous anticonsumerist activist groups have sprung up, such s Adjvits,fi Cwadian magazine that specializes in spools of popular advecâsing can paigns. For example, it parodied a real Calvin Klein campaign (which advance the careerof Kate Moss and ushered in an age of ultra-thin, wniftike model with a presumably bulimia woman vomiting into a toilet. AdbusM also spc’ sore an annual Buy Nothing Day (held, with great irony, or the day aft, Thanksgiving, known in xetail as “Black Friday,” the busiest shopping days the year), which encounges people to do just that—buy nothing on this s cific day of the year, encouraging them to reclaim their buying power and fci

on the noncommercial aspects of the holiday, such as spending time Tt

 

Another Adbuiters spoof caricatured the legendary joe Camel the an cnorphi                 advertising icon of Camel cigarettes from t987 until 19.

when R. j. Reynolds, the tobacco firm that conjured up the character, vol tartly stopped using his image after receiving complaints from Congress various public-interest groups that its ads primarily targeted cMdren. (In l§ a Jc«rwe/ «J th       in            Medical Assuoati’nn smdy found that more five- six-year-old kids recognized joe Camel than Mickey Mouse or Fred F’lin

[P. M. Fischer ct al., 1991].) In the Xdhusiers zpoo¥,“]oe Chemo” is w down a hospital hallway with an IV, presumably dying of cancer caused smoking.

 

 

 

106      Chapter 3: Culture ana Medta

 

 

 

 

 

increase their own reputations? Or are they rneaningful ptoduc-

, reihaping and rerrüxing the messages and rrraterials available to

uce their new, noncommercial message?

ipter has presented some new ways of looking at culture: how we how it affects us, and what this means for understanding ourselves Id in  hich we hve. Do you non have a new understanding of you now see your own culture through a critical lens? What have

ously taken for granted that you can now view as a product of our Can you now look at the media in a different ray? Don your critical cnp and put some of the stuff you’vc just learned into practice.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

to 75

 

the atp

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

gave tlSC t Presid’ e to d° ^

 

 

 

 

 

pt g$gnted ées rneÔà Q y gay iHVïS?’

‹e behavi°’

 

 

109