Vol.:(0123456789)
Synthese (2021) 199:8231–8255
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11229-021-03160-1
1 3
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
Barad, Bohr, and quantum mechanics
Jan Faye1 · Rasmus Jaksland2
Received: 21 April 2020 / Accepted: 9 April 2021 / Published online: 18 April 2021
© The Author(s) 2021
Abstract
The last decade has seen an increasing number of references to quantum mechanics in the humanities and social sciences. This development has in particular been
driven by Karen Barad’s agential realism: a theoretical framework that, based on
Niels Bohr’s interpretation of quantum mechanics, aims to inform social theorizing. In dealing with notions such as agency, power, and embodiment as well as the
relation between the material and the discursive level, the infuence of agential realism in felds such as feminist science studies and posthumanism has been profound.
However, no one has hitherto paused to assess agential realism’s proclaimed quantum mechanical origin including its relation to the writings of Niels Bohr. This is
the task taken up here. We fnd that many of the implications that agential realism
allegedly derives from a Bohrian interpretation of quantum mechanics dissent from
Bohr’s own views and are in confict with those of other interpretations of quantum
mechanics. Agential realism is at best consistent with quantum mechanics and consequently, it does not capture what quantum mechanics in any strict sense implies
for social science or any other domain of inquiry. Agential realism may be interesting and thought provoking from the perspective of social theorizing, but it is neither
sanctioned by quantum mechanics nor by Bohr’s authority. This conclusion not only
holds for agential realism in particular, it also serves as a general warning against
the other attempts to use quantum mechanics in social theorizing.
Keywords Agential realism · Karen Barad · Niels Bohr · Quantum mechanics ·
Relational holism · Ontology
* Rasmus Jaksland
[email protected]
Jan Faye
[email protected]
1 Department of Communication, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
2 Department of Philosophy and Religious Studies, Faculty of Humanities, NTNU – Norwegian
University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
8232 Synthese (2021) 199:8231–8255
1 3
1 Introduction
In recent years, there has been an explosion in references to and uses of quantum
mechanics outside its traditional habitat of physics, quantum chemistry and philosophy of physics.1 Interestingly, this expansion is not limited to neighboring felds.
Rather, quantum mechanics now features as part of the inspiration for and justifcation of theorizing in disciplines and domains of inquiry typically labelled as social
sciences or humanities.2
A prominent example of this trend is the work of Karen Barad and her agential realism as developed in Meeting the Universe Halfway: Quantum Physics and
the Entanglement of Matter and Meaning (2007). As the title suggests, Barad here
develops, among other things, a rethinking of the duality between matter and meaning, thereby echoing other new materialist voices3 while insisting, however, that
this rethinking is dictated by quantum mechanics. “Quantum physics, for Barad, is
resolutely not a metaphor but, rather, underpins agential realism’s articulation of
how the material world is brought into being” (Hollin et al., 2017, p. 935). Thus,
quantum mechanics is not exemplifying agential realism but justifying it, as we shall
argue below. Nevertheless, very few of the more than 8000 citations4 of Meeting
the Universe Halfway are in physics or philosophy of physics, which is arguably
the natural home for discussions about the philosophical implications of quantum
mechanics.5 Rather, the infuence of Barad’s agential realism has primarily been in
cultural studies and social theorizing broadly construed [see Hollin et al. (2017) for
further details]. However, this has not been a reason to disregard the quantum origin
of agential realism. As de Freitas writes in a review of Barad’s work: “She shows
how quantum physics can inform our thinking about gender, racial, queer and other
diferences” (2016, p. 150). The explicit interdisciplinary borrowing6 from quantum mechanics is also testifed by the use of agential realism under titles such as
Quantum Anthropologies (Kirby, 2011), The Entangled God: Divine Relationality
and Quantum Physics (Wegter-McNelly, 2011), “Quantum Sustainable Organizing
Theory” (Dyck & Greidanus, 2016), “Critical Naturalism: A Quantum Mechanical
1 We are aware that quantum mechanics, and the practice involving it, have been studied extensively
outside these mentioned disciplines by researchers in history, science studies and cultural studies (e.g.
Aronowitz, 1988; Harding, 1986, 1991; Hayles, 1984; Keller, 1995; Pickering, 1984; Plotnitsky, 1994).
We distinguish, however, these from uses of quantum mechanics where it features as part of the justifcation of or inspiration for the developed theorizing. In other words, when quantum mechanics is used—the
instances we are interested in here –, quantum mechanics is not (only) the object of study, but part of the
theoretical complex that informs that study.
2 As one researcher remarks in a recent discussion of Barad’s infuence in social science: “More
recently, in many areas of social and philosophical research, the’quantum’ label has become extremely
desirable” (Dunk, 2019, p. 1).
3 For a survey of these see, for instance, Dolphijn and Van de Tuin (2012).
4 As recorded by Google Scholar in February 2020.
5 Neither Barad nor any of the other exponents of the use of quantum mechanics in social theorizing
have published their fndings in physics or philosophy of physics venues, though Barad (1984, 1988) has
a couple of mainstream physics publications that, however, do not mention agential realism.
6 Following the terminology of Klein (1990).
8233
1 3
Synthese (2021) 199:8231–8255
Ethics” (Dolphijn, 2016), “What ever happened to quantum geography?” (Smith,
2016), and Quantum Art & Uncertainty (Thomas, 2018).
Despite this widespread reception of agential realism and the explicit role of
quantum mechanics in its conception, neither Barad nor anyone else have taken up
the task to connect agential realism with the vast literature on the various interpretations of quantum mechanics.7 Such a discussion is of particular importance, since
Barad’s account of quantum mechanics is closely informed by Niels Bohr’s interpretation. Until now, it therefore remains underexplored to what extent Barad’s presentation of quantum mechanics—which often reads as though it is the only possible
interpretation—relies on Bohr’s seminal view on quantum mechanics and, as we
shall also discuss, Barad’s idiosyncratic reading of Bohr. With respect to the latter,
Barad (2007, p. 122) does explicitly recognize that her realist reading of Bohr stands
out, but remarks that she in this reading is in the good company of the renowned
Bohr scholar Henry Folse.8
In contrast, we shall argue that Barad’s interpretation of Bohr and her account
of the implication this has for understanding quantum mechanics depart in important respects from all other readings of Bohr’s interpretation. Additionally, we show
that many of the more profound implications—including the rethinking of the matter/meaning dualism—are inconsistent with the mainstream interpretations of Bohr
and other prominent interpretations of quantum mechanics. This includes Rovelli’s
(1996) relational quantum mechanics, which Barad accentuates as similar to her
own interpretation. These discussions also serve as an occasion to detail Bohr’s use
of the term ‘phenomenon’; an otherwise little studied aspect. Phenomena (in Bohr’s
sense) are promoted by Barad to be the basic ontological unit, whereas we try to
document that Bohr intended phenomena to be derivative and entirely epistemic.
While these clarifcations might come across as exegetical, they are called for by
the widespread reception of Barad’s account of quantum mechanics—in the form of
agential realism—in the social sciences and humanities. Researchers in these felds
cannot be expected to have any familiarity with quantum mechanics. So, if their only
exposure to quantum mechanics is through Barad—or any other of the translators
of quantum mechanics mentioned below—they will invariably inherit the idiosyncratic interpretation of quantum mechanics that Barad expounds without, however,
realizing its controversial nature (Jaksland, 2020).9 When we here expose these idiosyncrasies, we do so in order for users of Barad’s work to become aware that the
7 Barad (2007, p. 287) lists various other approaches to quantum mechanics including many worlds
interpretation, Bohmian mechanics, spontaneous collapse theory, and decoherence, but none of them are
expanded upon or related to Barad’s agential realism that is based on her Bohr-interpretation. Those that
have discussed agential realism in a philosophy of physics context have had their focus elsewhere; examples being Harrell’s (2016, Sect. 2.3.3) account of agential realism as a feminist philosophy of physics
and Richardson (2010, p. 349) who situates agential realism in the broader context of feminist philosophy of science.
8 Furthermore, Barad insists that her account is “in considerable agreement with individual features of
many of the standard secondary texts on Bohr’s philosophy of physics” (2007, 122).
9 This risk is exemplifed when Vicky Kirby relies on Barad as the sole resource on quantum mechanics
in a book titled Quantum Anthropologies and where quantum mechanics is described as being “of crucial
importance for my argument” (Kirby, 2011, p. 76).
8234 Synthese (2021) 199:8231–8255
1 3
interpretation of quantum mechanics is an expansive feld of research with many
deviating conceptions. Barad is not revealing the truth about quantum mechanics,
but rather one among many possible interpretations and one, we argue, whose very
coherence is still in need of further scrutiny. Moreover, our fnding of important differences between Barad and Bohr shows that his authority does not sanction agential
realism.
The discussion of Barad, Bohr, and quantum mechanics also serves to renounce
the impression—found among many readers of Barad, if not in Barad’s own work—
that Barad is the frst since Bohr (and Heisenberg) to consider the philosophical
implications of quantum mechanics. In an appreciation of Barad’s work, Vetlesen
admires “[t]he way she goes about actualizing and further elaborating Bohr’s contribution—long neglected among the majority of philosophers—is original and
thought provoking” (2019, p. 126). Similarly, Pinch fnds “one of the great merits of
Barad’s work—and this is a real contribution—to be how she teases out and recovers what Bohr actually meant and the radical nature of his take on the issues” (2011,
p. 437). To contrast this narrative, we relate Barad’s work to the many other good
works on Bohr and the philosophy of quantum mechanics more generally that has
been published continuously over the last century. Finally, seen from the perspective
of philosophy of physics, this paper forms the frst assessment of Barad’s claim that
agential realism, apart from its importance to social theorizing, is “making a specifc
scientifc contribution to an active scientifc research feld (i.e., the foundations of
quantum physics)” (2007, p. 36).
As already mentioned, the expansion of quantum mechanics into the social sciences and humanities has many routes beyond Barad’s work, and many of the warnings issued here regarding Barad’s work and its use in these felds of inquiry are
equally relevant for many of the other recent speculative uses of quantum mechanics
outside of physics. Most of these also depend on very idiosyncratic interpretations
of quantum mechanics, often extended well beyond the regime where their application is empirically justifed. Alexander Wendt, for instance, in his Quantum Social
Science (2015) speculates that consciousness originates in quantum efects.10 This
hypothesis is not in itself new but based on more thorough—though still highly
speculative—work by Hamerof and Penrose (1996a, b, 2014). However, like Barad,
Wendt conjectures that these quantum efects (now in consciousness) have profound
consequences for social theorizing. As summarized by Fuller (2018, p. 179): “Considering human psychology in properly quantum terms means that the diference
between an agent and its environment does not amount to two physically separated
bodies but rather two overlapping spheres of possible action.” In our view, this and
similar speculations found in Wendt’s work and in those using it resemble the patterns of the theoretical complex surrounding Barad’s work. We therefore suspect
that many of the warnings issued here with respect to Barad also apply to Wendt
and other translators from quantum mechanics to social theorizing. And these warnings are important, since Wendt and others—like Barad—have seen widespread
10 See also Nadeau and Kafatos (2001), Grandy (2010), and Haven and Khrennikov (2013) to name a
few.
8235
1 3
Synthese (2021) 199:8231–8255
reception among researchers who rely on them as authorities on quantum mechanics; in the case of Wendt, this is exemplifed by Bowman (2019) among many others. While we will here only engage with Barad’s work, we call on others to conduct similar investigations into these other translators—Wendt in particular—and
their interpretation of quantum mechanics as compared to the philosophy of physics
mainstream.11
The paper proceeds as follows: Sect. 2 introduces Barad’s agential realism with
a focus on quantum mechanics and her use of Bohr’s philosophy. In Sect. 3, we
go on to argue that much of Barad’s ontologically loaded interpretation of quantum mechanics in the form of “phenomena” fnds no warrant in Bohr’s writings.
Section 4 continues with an exploration of Bohr’s attitude towards those dualisms
that Barad claims he rejects. The fnal Sect. 5 investigates, but ultimately refutes,
Barad’s (2007, p. 24) claim that agential realism captures the consequences of quantum mechanics for all domains of inquiry including social theorizing. First, we show
by example of Bohmian mechanics that other interpretations of quantum mechanics feature a metaphysics that is profoundly diferent from that of agential realism.
Second, we fnd that even Rovelli’s (1996) relational quantum mechanics—that
Barad ofers as a similar interpretation—is diferent from agential realism in important respects: This includes details in their respective response to the measurement
problem, where the deviations of agential realism might in our view compromise its
coherence. We conclude, therefore, that neither Bohr nor quantum mechanics as a
whole proves Barad’s agential realism to be true. Barad’s ideas are profound, interesting, and thought provoking, but like any other piece of social theorizing, agential
realism must earn its merits, if any, by its utility and not by its quantum mechanical
origin.
2 Agential realism
This is not the place to give a full account of Barad’s agential realism with all its
complexities. Our more modest ambition is to explicate those aspects of agential
realism that relate directly to Bohr’s writings and quantum mechanics emphasizing
along the way how Bohr and quantum mechanics are invoked by Barad. This is not
the place either to summarize the content and history of quantum mechanics; though
we will try to make the following as self-contained as possible.
In classical mechanics, particles carry both a defnite position and momentum.
The knowledge of these properties, together with that of the forces acting on the particle, is used to predict a particle’s future path. In quantum mechanics, this knowledge breaks down since certain pairs of properties—position and momentum among
11 Part of such a critical assessment of Wendt’s work has already been conducted by DeCanio (2017)
and Waldner (2017), the latter concluding: “The moral of this story is that, in all likelihood, we do not
need to become quantum social scientists” (Waldner, 2017, p. 200). It is a similar conclusion that we
advocate with respect to Barad’s agential realism.
8236 Synthese (2021) 199:8231–8255
1 3
them—are in a sense mutually incompatible.12 One cannot ascribe at the same time
a defnite position and a defnite momentum to a quantum mechanical object. This
feature is captured in Heisenberg’s indeterminacy13 relation according to which
there is a reciprocal relation between the indeterminacy of two such incompatible
properties. In other words, if the position of a particle is exactly determinate, then its
momentum must be completely indeterminate to satisfy the indeterminacy relation,
and in most cases, both the value of position and momentum will be indeterminate.
Evidently, we never see such indeterminacy in experiments.14 An electron is
never measured to be in more places at once or as traveling with multiple speeds at
the same time. When we measure the value of a property, for instance position, the
quantum system is forced to settle on a specifc value for position among the values in the range of the preceding indeterminacy.15 One might then propose that the
indeterminacy relation can be violated if we quickly measure the momentum after
the position measurement. This will indeed give a determinate value for momentum; however, if we measure the position again afterwards, the two position measurements will not agree. In fact, there will be no correlation between the measured
positions of a particle, if we measure momentum in-between each position measurement. The momentum measurement reinstates the indeterminacy of position.16 In
a sense, the mutually incompatible properties—like position and momentum—are
associated with mutually incompatible experiments where, if you choose a set-up
that measures one property, you at the same time prohibit a set-up that can measure
another property.
While most interpretations of quantum mechanics have little to say about this
mutual incompatibility of experiments, it becomes central to Bohr’s notion of complementarity. “The apparently incompatible sorts of information about the behavior
of the object under examination which we get by diferent experimental arrangements can clearly not be brought into connection with each other in the usual way,
but may as equally essential for an exhaustive account of all experience, be regarded
12 More precisely, the operators related to the two incompatible properties do not commute.
13 We use ‘indeterminacy principle’ instead of the more common ‘uncertainty principle’ to signify that
the reciprocal relation and therefore mutual incompatibility between pairs of properties are for Barad
not the artefacts of our lacking knowledge of the system under investigation. Rather, these are genuinely
inscrutable indeterminacies. See Faye (2019) for further details on this distinction, which we shall also
return to in Sect. 5 in our discussion of Bohmian mechanics.
14 We do, of course, often have some measurement inaccuracy such that the position or momentum—
whatever we measure—is only known with a certain precision. This uncertainty, however, is diferent
from the indeterminacy in quantum mechanics.
15 What exactly happens when the wave function ‘collapses’ onto a particular value of a property (an
eigenvalue in technical terms) is the center of the debate over the measurement problem in quantum
mechanics. The account given here attempts to describe what happens according to the quantum formalism, and diferent interpretations of quantum mechanics will provide diferent stories for the associated
ontology, as we shall see in Sect. 5.
16 This is perhaps better illustrated with spin. If we consider a spin-½ particle and do interchanging
measurements of its spin in two orthogonal directions, we will fnd that there is no correlation between
the spin-measurement in the same direction. The probability of getting spin up would be 0.5, if the preceding spin measurement were made in an orthogonal direction, even if the previous measurement in the
frst direction had yielded spin up.
8237
1 3
Synthese (2021) 199:8231–8255
as ‘complementary’ to each other” (Bohr, [1937] 1998, pp. 84–85). When the physicists choose between mutually incompatible experimental arrangements, they select
a particular measuring instrument, which they already know allows them to describe
the outcome in terms of some property-concept, like position or momentum.
Thus, according to Bohr, in quantum mechanics there is an integration between
the use of concepts such as ‘position’, the property to which the concepts refer, and
the context of measurement. And these complexes come in complementary pairs,
again position and momentum being an example, but Bohr also mentions complementarity between energy and duration and wave and particle descriptions, among
others. The ascription of properties entering in complementary pairs is only meaningful relative to an experimental set-up that measures the property in question,
Bohr argues, and qua complementary the pairs are not applicable to a system at the
same time.
As such, the defning conditions for the ascription of a property in a complementary pair to a quantum object are provided by the experimental set-up, according
to Bohr, and these conditions are mutually exclusive: “the ascription of [complementary] properties to the object as it exists independently of a specifc experimental interaction is ill-defned” (Faye, 2019). According to this view—often known as
Bohr’s contextualism—the mutual exclusion due to complementarity entails that a
measurement context where a quantum object has a determinate position, renders
the attribution of the concept ‘momentum’ unintelligible, and similarly for other
complementary pairs.
Barad summarizes Bohr’s view in the following way (using the example of
position):
“position” only has meaning when a rigid apparatus with fxed parts is used
[…]. And furthermore, any measurement of “position” using this apparatus
cannot be attributed to some abstract independently existing “object” but rather
is a property of the phenomenon—the inseparability of “observed object” and
“agencies of observation”17 (2003, 814, emphasis in original).
On Barad’s reading of Bohr, it is not the quantum object that has a property in an
experimental context, but rather it is the relationality of quantum object and experimental set-up, the “phenomenon,” that has the property. This relationality—as captured by the phenomenon—is the cornerstone in Barad’s ontological framework and
the composition metaphor implicit in the quotation above should only be assigned
instructional signifcance18:
phenomena do not merely mark the epistemological inseparability of
“observer” and “observed”; rather, phenomena are the ontological inseparability of agentially intra-acting “components.” That is, phenomena are onto-
17 Barad borrows the notions ‘phenomenon’ and ‘agencies of observation’ directly from Bohr though she
arguably distorts, as we shall see, their meaning for her own purposes.
18 This leads Barad to argue that the separation between object and apparatus is not fxed; a view that
Heisenberg advocates in opposition to Bohr (Bächtold, 2017; Schlosshauer & Camilleri, 2017).
8238 Synthese (2021) 199:8231–8255
1 3
logically primitive relations—relations without preexisting relata19 (Barad
2003, 815, emphasis in original).
The phenomena do not emerge from the inter-action between object and measurement apparatus (agency of observation). Phenomena should rather be considered as
ontologically primitive, and it is specifc intra-actions within phenomena that give
rise to the separation into observed object and apparatus.20 In more technical terms,
Barad defends this by observing that the object and the measuring apparatus become
entangled upon measurement, whereby they, according to the quantum formalism,
cannot be described as two separate interacting systems. Instead, they form a nonseparable whole, and Barad takes this to explain why phenomena (in her use of the
term) must be the ontological primitive: “phenomena are the ontological entanglement of objects and agencies of observation. Hence it is the ontological inseparability or entanglement of the object and the agencies of observation that is the basis
for complementarity” (Barad, 2007, p. 309). The latter follows, according to Barad,
since the entanglement between an object and an apparatus measuring one of a complementary pair of properties precludes the entanglement with an apparatus measuring the complementary property. From this, Barad concludes that “Bohr constructs
his post-Newtonian framework on the basis of ‘quantum wholeness’ or inseparability, that is, the lack of an inherent distinction between the object and the agencies of
observation” (Barad, 2007, p. 196).
According to Barad, it follows from these observations that quantum mechanics
does away with the “metaphysics of individualism” (Barad, 2007, p. 195), which she
elsewhere qualifes as the “conventional (Newtonian) view of metaphysics, whereby
there are individual objects with individually determinate properties, and measurements reveal the preexisting values of particular physical quantities” (Barad, 2007,
p. 262). In contrast, Barad’s Bohr-inspired interpretation of quantum mechanics
hosts no individual objects with properties and renounces explicitly even cautious
forms of entity realism typically explicated along the following lines: “Experimenting on an entity does not commit you to believing that it exists. Only manipulating
an entity, in order to experiment on something else, need do that” (Hacking, 1983, p.
263; quoted in Barad, 2007, p. 357). Only phenomena—the inseparable whole from
which objects and measurement apparatus derive—are the fundamentally real, and
properties must therefore instead be ascribed to these phenomena. Even the confguration of components within phenomena including their mutual boundaries is
variable, since they, according to Barad, are enacted by the specifcs of an experimental practice. More generally, it is these “boundary-making practices that produce
‘objects’ and ‘subjects’ and other diferences out of, and in terms of, a changing
19 In this regard, agential realism likens ontic structural realism (e.g. French & Ladyman, 2003), but this
similarity will not be pursued further here.
20 As Vetlesen (2019, chap. 3) observes, what these intra-actions involve and how they enact the different confgurations of object and agency of observation are never sufciently explicated; especially
beyond a laboratory setting of quantum mechanics.
8239
1 3
Synthese (2021) 199:8231–8255
relationality” (Barad, 2007, p. 93).21 Neither the observed object, nor the measurement apparatus and the experimenter exist prior to the measurement, and none of
them can therefore have determinate pre-existing properties. Furthermore, with subject and object being variable and derivative categories, Barad questions traditional
dualism of subject-object and knower-known22: These dualisms are not inherent but
come into being through intra-actions within phenomena.
The complementarity of properties—including the complementarity of the
associated concepts and experimental setups—only amplifes this efect. According to Bohr, the concept ‘position’ is only meaningful in an experimental context
that measures position and in this context, ‘momentum’ is ill defned. In Barad’s
view, this relationship introduces a materiality or embodiment to words and even to
meaning itself. “It is through specifc agential intra-actions that the boundaries and
properties of the causally related components of phenomena become ontologically
determinate and that particular concepts become meaningful (that is, semantically,
determinate)” (Barad, 2007, p. 339). Words, world, and meaning are co-produced by
intra-actions within phenomena, which refute “the independently determinate existence of words and things” (Barad, 2007, p. 107).23 The dualisms of word-world and
material-discursive cannot be sustained, since the complementarity of properties
in quantum mechanics entails that confgurations of phenomena only admit certain
embodied concepts and meanings while excluding other complementary ones: “the
physical and conceptual apparatuses form a nondualistic whole” (Barad, 2007, p.
196).24
In summary, Barad argues that phenomena—the whole from which specifc material confgurations derive—are the ontologically primitive entities. The boundaries
between object and agency of observation are not inherent, and the same goes for
those of subject-object and knower-known. Even the word-world dualism is rejected
because of the material conditions for the attribution of complementary concepts.
“For Bohr, things do not have inherently determinate boundaries or properties, and
words do not have inherently determinate meanings. Bohr also calls into question
the related Cartesian belief in the inherent distinction between subject and object,
and knower and known” (Barad, 2007, p. 138).
24 More precisely, an experimental set-up is “giving determinate meaning to those concepts embodied in
the apparatus (to the exclusion of other complementary concepts)” (Barad, 2007, p. 330). By this exclusion, the intra-actions exacting confgurations are in this sense “agential” and a pervasive agency therefore prevails in Barad’s agential realism. “In my agential realist elaboration of Bohr’s account, apparatuses are the material conditions of possibility and impossibility of mattering; they enact what matters
and what is excluded from mattering” (Barad, 2007, p. 148, emphasis in original).
21 As such, both knowledge and agency are also to be ascribed to the phenomena as a whole; something
that Barad employs as part of a posthumanist and new materialist program. However, we shall not discuss these positions further here.
22 Barad summarizes the knower/known dualism as the view “that measurements reveal the preexisting values of the properties of independently existing objects as separate from the measuring agencies”
(Barad, 2007, p. 107).
23 Barad elaborates: “Meaning is not a property of individual words or groups of words but an ongoing
performance of the world in its diferential dance of intelligibility and unintelligibility” (Barad, 2007, p.
149).
8240 Synthese (2021) 199:8231–8255
1 3
3 Bohr on ‘Phenomena’ and realism
Barad’s summary, however, is not entirely faithful to Bohr’s view. Indeed, Barad
already goes well beyond what Bohr seems to have had in mind when she promotes the phenomenon to an ontological unit and one that comprises of (or in her
terms enacts) both object, experiment and experimenter. Barad does recognize
that her presentation of Bohr’s view is more ontological, than the epistemological
voice found in Bohr’s own account. However, Barad merely describes this as “[d]
rawing out the ontological dimensions of Bohr’s framework” (2007, p. 174).
Since many readers of Bohr’s writings have complained that his essays are
obscure and difcult to read, we shall establish some terminology. Bohr distinguishes between object, measuring instrument, measurement, and phenomenon.
The atomic object is the physical system about which physicists want to get information, and in order to receive some information about the object the physicists
apply a measuring instrument to interact with the object. The application of the
measuring instrument to the object is the same as carrying out an experiment. A
phenomenon is the outcome of a measurement, or rather a combination of two
measurements. First, we need a measurement that determines the initial value of
either a position or a momentum to be able to predict the behavior of the object;
second, we need a later measurement that determine a new value of either a position or a momentum to see, whether or not the object behaves according to the
quantum mechanical predictions. Thus, a phenomenon in Bohr’s use of the word
is how the quantum object appears during the interaction with a particular measuring instrument. In quantum mechanics, the interaction has “an essential infuence on the phenomenon itself;” i.e., on what is actually measured.
Bohr does, with his notion of phenomena, promote an integrated view of the
experimental contexts when he fnds that it is “in accordance with the structure
and interpretation of the quantum mechanical symbolism, as well as with elementary epistemological principles, to reserve the word ‘phenomenon’ for the comprehension of the efects observed under given experimental conditions” (Bohr,
[1938] 1998, p. 104). However, Bohr emphasizes that the word “phenomenon”
refers to an efect (or the outcome) that appears whenever the interaction between
an object and a measuring instrument takes place. This efect, i.e. the phenomenon, is the manifestation of a property that only exists in virtue of the interaction.
It belongs neither to the object itself nor to the measuring instrument.
But Barad misreads Bohr as if he was saying that, say, the position is a property of the phenomenon, whereas Bohr holds that the phenomenon is identical to
the manifestation of a quantitative property that atomic objects can be attributed
only because of its interaction with the measuring instrument. Thus, a phenomenon does not have an independent ontological status but depends on an interaction of the atomic object and the measuring instrument. Both of which, by the
operational presumption of doing science, are presumed to be independently
real. This conception is well supported by other occurrences of ‘phenomenon’ in
Bohr’s writings, for instance when he discusses “the impossibility of any sharp
separation between the behaviour of atomic objects and the interaction with the
8241
1 3
Synthese (2021) 199:8231–8255
measuring instruments which serve to defne the conditions under which the phenomena appear” (Bohr, 1949, p. 210, emphasis in original). Here Bohr distinguishes between “the phenomena” and the experimental conditions under which
these phenomena appear.
Moreover, he tells us that what defnes these conditions is the measuring
device in question. Epistemically, we have to distinguish between the phenomenon and the measuring instrument, although the choice of measuring instrument
informs us about which kind of phenomenon we can expect to observe. A similar remark is true of the following statement of Bohr: “I advocated the application of the word phenomenon exclusively to refer to the observation obtained
under specifc circumstances, including an account of the whole experimental
arrangement” (Bohr, 1949, pp. 237–238). Again, Bohr distinguishes between the
phenomenon, which is the actual observation we produce by using a particular
measuring instrument, and the specifc circumstances under which we obtain this
observation. The specifc circumstances include the kind of measuring instrument
by which the observation is carried out.
In our view, it is beyond doubt that Bohr regarded phenomena to be derivative from a pre-existing experimental set-up. In addition, we propose that phenomena are most appropriately regarded as an epistemological integration of the
object of study and measuring apparatus; however, in such a way that they retain
their ontological separateness. Moreover, although the uncontrollable interaction
between the atomic object and the measuring instruments seems to involve the
choice of an experimenter, Bohr warns us against thinking that the experimenter
takes part in the result. As he says, “it is certainly not possible for the observer
to infuence the events which may appear under the conditions he has arranged”
(Bohr, 1949, p. 223). This is at least an important qualifcation to Barad’s claim
that “[a]ccording to Bohr, the central lesson of quantum mechanics is that we are
part of the nature that we seek to understand” (Barad, 2007, p. 247). Bohr’s point
merely seems to be that, just like in classical physics, the experimenter selects
the kind of experiment she wants to run, but thereafter she has nothing to do with
how the atomic object appears as a phenomenon having a precise value. Barad’s
strong notion of intra-actions enacting cuts within the ontologically primitive
phenomena fnds no counterpart in Bohr’s interpretation of quantum mechanics.
Now, according to Bohr, no atomic object can be attributed classical kinematic
or dynamic properties independently of the experimental set-up. Consequently,
he denies that quantum objects have such properties intrinsically. He states this
very clearly by saying: it is important to understand “that no result of an experiment concerning a phenomenon which, in principle, lies outside of classical
physics can be interpreted as giving information about independent properties of
the objects, but is inherently connected with a defnite situation in the description of which the measuring instruments interacting with the objects also enter
essentially” (Bohr, [1939] 1958, p. 26). However, it should again be emphasized
that Bohr—in contrast to Barad—does not think that these relational properties
exist as ontological primitive relations without pre-existing relata. For Bohr both
atomic objects and instruments are real, and as such they fgure as relata in a
sentence like “… is recorded to have position p in relation to …”. It is from this
8242 Synthese (2021) 199:8231–8255
1 3
perspective that we warn against Barad’s ontologically realist interpretation of
Bohr.
Barad is correct that there are realist interpretations of Bohr. However, rather than
promoting a relational ontology like agential realism, these realist interpretations of
Bohr take passages like the above to signify that Bohr was an entity realist. The frst
to promote this understanding of Bohr as an entity realist was Henry Folse (1986)
of which Barad writes: “Henry Folse and I have been the strongest proponents of
the minority view that sees Bohr as a realist, though we disagree about the nature
of Bohr’s realism” (Barad, 2007, p. 122). From this qualifcation, one might get the
impression that the disagreements between Barad and Folse are merely cosmetic
compared to their shared realist interpretation. However, the entity realism that
Folse fnds in Bohr’s writings goes directly against Barad’s interpretations of quantum mechanics, which explicitly denies entity realism.
An entity realist holds that experiments with the microscopic object tell us what
is real and what is not [see Cartwright (1983) and Hacking (1983) for two authoritative accounts]. We fnd out about atoms by interacting with atomic systems, not by
picturing them. So, according to Folse’s interpretation of Bohr, Bohr held the view
that whenever the physicists perform a measurement, the result is due to the fact that
an object is actually being observed. The entity being observed is the atomic object
that exists independently of the observation. Bohr was in other words a realist about
atoms and atomic objects according to Folse. These entities have independent existence, but as such they are part of the fundamental ontology and not, as Barad insists,
derivative from phenomena. Folse’s realist interpretation of Bohr defeats rather than
supports the ontological relational holism of agential realism. From this perspective, it might render agential realism more compatible with Bohr that realist interpretations of Bohr—as Barad’s also remarks—are a minority view. However, in our
assessment, most readers of Bohr will agree with the characterization of him as an
entity realist. Although Faye (1991) calls Bohr an objective antirealist, he agrees
that Bohr never denied the existence of atomic objects. Bohr’s entity realism is why
Faye considered him to be an objective antirealist but considered him to be an antirealist with respect to theories. The disagreement between Folse and Faye was about
whether or not Bohr believed that there exists something behind the phenomenon
that physicists could grasp neither experimentally nor theoretically. Folse (1985)
said yes, Faye (1991) no. Whether Folse is right or wrong, his realistic understanding of Bohr is very diferent from Barad’s. Folse (1994) believes that an ontological
commitment corresponding to Bohr’s complementarity view would bring Bohr to
embrace a distinction between atomic objects as real entities as they are in themselves, but unknowable to us, and as they appear to us in their interaction with the
measuring instrument.
Zinkernagel (2016) and Halvorson (2019) have argued that Bohr held a more
realist attitude towards the quantum formalism. Zinkernagel, however, concedes
that Bohr mostly talks about epistemological and instrumental aspects of quantum
mechanics as Bohr refers to descriptions of quantum system and to the theory as
a tool for prediction. In spite of this concession, he also believes that Bohr sometimes attributed the wave function a representational status even though Bohr in
8243
1 3
Synthese (2021) 199:8231–8255
general characterized it as symbolic.25 David Favrholdt (1994) holds that Bohr is a
realist who rejects the classical image of scientifc knowledge as a God’s eye view
of nature. The discovery of the quantum of action shows that such an image is not
possible, and it shows that a physical description cannot be about how nature is,
but what we can say about it in an unambiguous and objective way. Such an unambiguous description is possible to the extent we are able to make a sharp distinction between the object and the measuring instrument by using the classical physical
concepts and ordinary language. According to Favrholdt, one commits to the existence of a mind-independent world by complying with the rules for the use of everyday language. So, when Bohr talks about using the ordinary language supplemented
with technical terminology, he dedicates himself to realism. In combining realism
with language-dependence, which integrates language and objectivity, Favrholdt’s
is possibly the reading of Bohr that comes closest to Barad’s.26 Exploring the afnities between Barad and Favrholdt would be an interesting exegetical exercise, but for
another occasion.
Bohr did argue that the quantum object under investigation uncontrollably interacts with the measuring instrument, or as we usually say today, they are entangled. During a measurement the state of the target object and that of the measuring
instrument are inseparable. However, he also argued that as long as we use classical concepts to secure an unambiguous description of the measurement outcome,
we are epistemically justifed in making a separation in our description of what we
measure from our description of the instrument with which we do the measuring
(Howard, 1994); a view that even Favrholdt shares.27 This is due to the fact that
“the proper measuring instrument […] serves to defne the reference frame” (Bohr,
1949, p. 228) for our description of the quantum object and that we can disregard
quantum efects in the account of the function of the instrument. In other words, we
treat the measurement outcome as if it yields information about an object that exists
separated from the instrument. At frst sight, this is an epistemic and a practical distinction. However, it is not obvious what ontologically corresponds to this distinction since both the object and the instrument exist in an entangled state during the
25 It remains a question of debate what Bohr’s attitude towards the wave function exactly is and what
Bohr takes to be the justifcation and philosophical implications of the insistence that complementary
concepts are only meaningful in the relevant experimental context. Barad ofers a distinctly ontological
reading of Bohr, which marks it as rather unconventional in a feld that primarily comprises of various non-ontological readings, the most common being: epistemic (e.g. Murdoch, 1987), pragmatist
(e.g. Folse 2017; Stapp 1972), functionalist (e.g. Camilleri & Schlosshauer, 2015), Kantian (e.g. Honner, 1987), instrumentalist (e.g. Popper, 1962, chap. 3), or naturalist (e.g. Faye, 2017) readings of Bohr.
Generally, any ontological reading has been strongly opposed by Bohr’s former assistant Aage Petersen
(1963).
26 Barad (2007, footnote 94) mentions Favrholdt (1994) in a list of other realist readings of Bohr, but
does not elaborate further on the resemblances.
27 Zinkernagel (2015, 2016) disputes that Bohr saw this need to epistemically separate the otherwise
entangled object and measuring apparatus. Instead, Zinkernagel argues that Bohr considered the measuring apparatus as a whole to be classical and therefore not subject to entanglement. This, of course, is no
better for Barad’s proposal that Bohr considered object and measuring apparatus to be in an ontological
quantum entangled state. Even though Bohr’s view on entanglement is disputed, Barad stands alone with
her ontological interpretation also on this point.
8244 Synthese (2021) 199:8231–8255
1 3
measurement. Probably Bohr did not really care. As he states, the purpose of quantum mechanics “is not to disclose the real essence of phenomena but only to track
down, so far as it is possible, relations between the manifold aspects of experience”
(Bohr, [1955] 1958, p. 71). The consequence is that “[t]he entire formalism is to be
considered as a tool for deriving predictions of defnite and statistical character…”
(Bohr, [1948] 1998, p. 144).
Instead, Bohr claimed repeatedly that the wave function has only a symbolic character. In alignment with the symbolic character of the wave function, there is nearly
consensus that Bohr never in his writings spoke about the collapse of the wave function, which would have made sense only if he considered the wave function to represent an objective physical state. A search of his writings also reveals that Bohr does
not use the term “quantum states” (except when he talks about stationary states),
which one would have expected he would have done if he had considered the wave
function as representing an ontological state that undergoes an abrupt change into a
classical state during the measurement. For Bohr there was no measurement problem, as many realists and representationalists believe.
Bohr’s view is still a type of relational holism, but an epistemic rather than ontological variant; indeed this epistemic relational holism is largely identical to that
defended by Teller (1989), Faye (1991) and more recently by Dorato (2017). Quantum systems have classical properties only with respect to their interaction with the
measuring instrument since the impossibility of their dynamical separation does not
allow describing the phenomenon in isolation from the apparatus.
As we can see, several authors read Bohr realistically, but apart from holding that
Bohr was an entity realist there seems to be little agreement whether and how his
realism extends beyond that. However, it is also clear that Barad cannot fnd any
support for her interpretation in any of these readings, which—perhaps apart from
Favrholdt’s—are all very diferent from her construal, and the same is true for other
more anti-realist readings of Bohr.
4 Bohr and dualisms
With Bohr’s entity realism and the epistemic and derivative nature of phenomena,
there seems to be little merit to Barad’s claim that Bohr questioned the epistemic
dualisms of subject/object, knower/known, and word/world as we shall argue below.
As stated above, Bohr fnds that we must treat measurement outcomes as though
they yielded information about the object of study as separated from the measurement device. This, he argues, follows from the need to use classical concepts that
ascribe properties to entities. However, due to complementarity it is necessary to
accompany the use of these classical concepts with a specifcation of the experimental context, since it does make a diference for what we can measure. If anything,
this condition for objective reporting on experiments that Bohr identifes presumes
those very dualisms that Barad claims Bohr questions. To report on an experiment,
we must, according to Bohr, speak as though there is a sharp separation between
the object of study and the subject studying it; the latter including both measuring
device and experimenter. And even these latter two are kept apart when Bohr argues
8245
1 3
Synthese (2021) 199:8231–8255
that the experimenter only afects the measurement on choosing which experimental
set-up to use.
By a similar argument, the dualism of knower and known is intact and possibly
even a precondition for Bohr’s interpretation of quantum mechanics. The reporting
of experiments is a sharing of knowledge. It is this sharing of knowledge that for
Bohr is crucial. Indeed, it is the defning feature of an experiment:
The argument is simply that by the word ’experiment’ we refer to a situation
where we can tell others what we have done and what we have learned and
that, therefore, the account of the experimental arrangement and of the results
of observations must be expressed in unambiguous language with suitable
application of the terminology of classical physics (Bohr, 1949, p. 209).
Again, this quote illustrates the role of subjects as separated from the objects
studied in an experiment. But, more importantly, it emphasizes that the role of the
experiment is to “tell others what we have done and what we have learned”, i.e. to
share knowledge among knowers. With the purpose of quantum mechanics being
to fnd relations between aspects of experiences and experiments being the means
of revealing these relations, knowers become the starting point for any venture into
quantum mechanics. And the aim is to achieve sharable knowledge about quantum objects which thereby become the known. It seems, therefore, that the knower/
known dualism is where Bohr’s interpretation of quantum mechanics begins and
ends.
As Bohr also emphasizes in the quotation, he fnds that the terminology of classical physics is central for the “unambiguous” reporting on experiments. However,
complementarity entails that the properties known from classical physics are not
always applicable and that some of these are mutually exclusive. This does entail
an integration of the material and discursive that goes beyond the generic relation
between language and the world.28 The classical terminology is inevitable, while
quantum mechanics proves that the use of this terminology is restricted to experimental contexts that by complementarity excludes the meaningful ascription of other
parts of the classical terminology. As Barad also fnds, this contextualism in Bohr’s
interpretation introduces a form of extended material conditions for the ascription
of these properties, where properties not only apply under specifc circumstances,29
but also where the meaningful ascription of one property renders another completely unintelligible. However, Barad seems to take it too far when she proposes
that Bohr thereby denounces the word/world dualism and “the independently determinate existence of words and things” (Barad, 2007, p. 107), if she means by this
anything stronger than this contextualism. Indeed, like the subject and the knower,
the classical terminology seems to be fxed prior to the experiment. One might say
that for Bohr, it is exactly the indispensability of ordinary language with its central role for classical terminology that induces the need for contextualism. Words,
28 Representationalism is, of course, debated. However, many will agree that there is some elementary
interdependence between language and the world; at least as it appears in our experience.
29 That properties apply under specifc circumstances is of course not peculiar to quantum mechanics.
8246 Synthese (2021) 199:8231–8255
1 3
world, and meaning are not co-produced. Rather, the classical terminology, adapted
to our ordinary experiences, is given. Its pre-existing meaning restricts what counts
as experiments by limiting those observations that can be expressed in unambiguous
language, to use Bohr’s terminology from the quotation above.
In contrast to what Barad (2007, p. 138) claims, Bohr does not call into question the dualisms of subject/object, knower/known, or word/world. If anything, these
dualisms are at the foundation of Bohr’s interpretation of quantum mechanics.
5 Agential realism and quantum mechanics
The more radical parts of agential realism—the ontological prioritizing of phenomena and the questioning of prominent epistemic dualism—are at tension with Bohr’s
writings. However, Barad’s primary aim is after all not to interpret Bohr but to
show what implications quantum mechanics must have in social theorizing. As she
emphasizes, “I am not interested in drawing analogies between particles and people,
the micro and the macro, the scientifc and the social, nature and culture; rather, I
am interested in understanding the epistemological and ontological issues that quantum physics forces us to confront” (Barad, 2007, p. 24). Agential realism is Barad’s
answer to this question. This section, however, argues that the adoption of agential
realism is by no means forced upon us by quantum mechanics. It is well beyond the
scope of this paper to discuss every detail of quantum mechanics up against Barad’s
interpretation. Rather, we shall provide a two-fold indirect argument to the efect
that at best agential realism is consistent with quantum mechanics according to our
current best understanding of the quantum world.
First, we argue by the example of Bohmian mechanics that there are interpretations of quantum mechanics that share very few features in common with agential realism. This suggests, as one might have expected, that agential realism is not
entailed by quantum mechanics in any strict sense of entailment. Second, we compare agential realism to Rovelli’s relational quantum mechanics which Barad (2007,
p. 333) describes as similar to agential realism. The point of the comparison is to
signify that agential realism has subtle diferences even from relational quantum
mechanics and that these diferences importantly manifest themselves in the measurement problem where agential realism cannot help itself to the same solution as
relational quantum mechanics. Indeed, the ontological inseparability of object and
agency of observation indicates a tension in the solution to the measurement problem within agential realism. Thus, not only are there many other and very diferent
interpretations of quantum mechanics, but it also remains to be clarifed whether
agential realism is even consistent with quantum mechanics, or so we argue.
The diferences between agential realism and Bohmian mechanics are also
noticed but not further developed by Pinch (2011). As Pinch observes, Bohm dissented from Bohr’s view in two important respects: He rejected the inevitable role of
the classical terminology advocating the development of a new quantum language.
We only mention it to emphasize that Bohr’s contextualism with its central role for
the classical terminology is not generally accepted. Furthermore, it is in any case
a philosophical question whose relevance is amplifed by quantum mechanics, but
8247
1 3
Synthese (2021) 199:8231–8255
which quantum mechanics does nothing to answer. What we shall discuss in a bit
more detail is Bohm’s view—inherited from Einstein, de Broglie, and others—that
what we described earlier as indeterminacy, for instance in Heisenberg’s relations,
should (in a particular sense that we return to below) be interpreted as mere uncertainty. These so-called hidden variable theories argue that quantum objects do have
determinate trajectories through space, and that the wave function therefore gives
an incomplete description of the system. Indeed, Bohm (1952) fnds that the results
of paradigmatic quantum experiments can be accounted for by the introduction of
an additional dynamical equation—a guiding law—that relates the wave function to
the change of the position of the particle, i.e. to the velocity. As is well known, the
violation of Bell’s (1964) inequalities entails that any such hidden variables theory
must be non-local, meaning that it must feature action-at-a-distance.30 Such nonlocality appears in Bohmian mechanics when the velocity of a particle in entangled
many-particle states is afected or guided instantaneously by the other particles irrespective of their mutual distance.
The interested reader can consult Goldstein (2017) and references therein for
more on the technical details of Bohmian mechanics. We shall for present purposes
simply observe that Bohmian mechanics reproduces all the predictions of quantum
mechanics, while promoting a metaphysics that is signifcantly diferent from that of
agential realism.31 Recall that according to agential realism, there are no individual
objects with determinate properties that are simply revealed by measurement and
relatedly, complementarity signifes the metaphysical indeterminacy of the property
not being measured. Phenomena are the fundamentally real from which the separation into object of study, apparatus and observer are derived with diferent intraactions enacting diferent such boundaries. In comparison, the ontology of Bohmian
mechanics32 comprises of individual particles with determinate position and (instantaneous) velocity,33 which provides for pre-determined trajectories through space
and time.34 Bohmian particles are individual “local beables” in the terminology of
Bell (2001). Any event is accounted for in terms of these trajectories of the particles
that constitute all elements involved in the event (Dürr et al., 2004). In a measurement, for instance, both the object of study and the measurement apparatus must be
included in the Bohmian description to yield the correct results. As such, the entire
universe should ideally be included in the Bohmian description.
30 See also Barad (2007, chap. 7) for a detailed account of Bell’s inequalities and their consequences for
local hidden variable theories.
31 We are not saying that Barad is unaware of Bohmian mechanics even though it is only mentioned once
in the main text as part of a list of other interpretations of quantum mechanics (Barad, 2007, p. 287);
none of which are discussed any further.
32 We are not interested in an exegetical discussion about the details of Bohm’s metaphysical commitments, but rather the contemporary conception of the ontology of Bohmian mechanics. For a historical
account, see Seager (2018).
33 Velocity is not an independent degree of freedom, since the Bohmian guiding law is a frst order differential equation. Thereby, it directly relates position to velocity through the wave function.
34 It remains an open question how to treat the wave function in Bohmian mechanics. To simplify the
comparison with agential realism, the present account is implicitly assuming a dispositional interpretation of Bohmian mechanics (Belot, 2012; Esfeld et al., 2014).
8248 Synthese (2021) 199:8231–8255
1 3
This descriptive feature provides for two similarities to agential realism, but
ultimately for many more diferences. First, Bohmian mechanics erases the ontological division between the quantum objects and the experiments studying them,
which also follows by their merging into phenomena in agential realism. Second,
in order to reproduce quantum phenomenology, all properties apart from position
and velocity are produced from the interaction between the quantum object and
the apparatus (or more generally, the environment).35 These properties—including
energy, momentum, and spin—do not pre-exist the measurement; again, a thesis that
is also central to agential realism. The import, however, is very diferent. In Bohmian mechanics, an experimental context does not project—or enact, as Barad would
have it—these properties from indeterminate to determinate. Rather, these properties can simply be regarded as non-existing in Bohmian mechanics. They function
as convenient book-keeping devices for the changing positions of particles which are
ultimately real36: “the state of a physical system is completely and precisely determined, at any moment in time, by the actual particle positions and the wave function, fxing how the positions change in time” (Lazarovici et al., 2018, p. 7).
The Bohmian ontology is in other words very diferent from the ontological relational holism of agential realism where “[b]oundaries, properties, and meanings are
diferentially enacted through the intra-activity of mattering” (Barad, 2007, p. 392).
In Bohmian mechanics, quantum object, apparatus, and observer are all part of the
universe’s determinate confguration of individual interacting particles in space that
evolves entirely deterministically by specifed laws of motion. The non-locality of
the Bohmian guiding law entails that there is an intrinsic interconnectedness in this
ontology; however, it is an interconnectedness between individuals. Again, our point
here is not to promote Bohmian mechanics on behalf of Barad’s agential realism.
Instead, the case of Bohmian mechanics shows that agential realism is not exposing “the epistemological and ontological issues that quantum physics forces us to
confront” (Barad, 2007, p. 24). At best, agential realism provides us with the epistemological and ontological implications of one particular interpretation of quantum mechanics, whereas the same sorts of implications are very diferent in other
interpretations.
That the implications are diferent in crucial respects in other interpretations
is even the case for those interpretations that Barad fnds to “have important features in common with each other and with the view [agential realism] presented
here” (Barad, 2007, p. 333). These (allegedly) associated interpretations are Mermin’s (1998) Ithaca interpretation and Rovelli’s (1996) relational quantum mechanics. The latter in particular is superfcially similar to agential realism in its account
35 Formally, this follows from a no-go theorem due to Kochen and Specker (1968), but more heuristically Bohmian mechanics must still reproduce the apparent indeterminacy in quantum mechanics
discussed in Sect. 2. Bohmian particles are, in this sense, not classical particles even though Bohmian
mechanics is sometimes (mistakenly) portrayed as classical mechanics with non-local interactions among
particles.
36 It may sound absurd to denounce the existence of these other “observables” in quantum mechanics;
however, as argued by Lazarovici et al. (2018) among others, what we ultimately measure are positions
and changes of position. None of the other observables are directly observable.
8249
1 3
Synthese (2021) 199:8231–8255
of measurement, properties, and observers. Relational quantum mechanics rejects
“the notion of observer-independent values of physical quantities” (Rovelli, 1996,
p. 1637). This immediately entails that one cannot ascribe determinate values of
properties to quantum objects as they are in themselves. Rovelli, however, goes further and argues that such values are observer-dependent in the sense that they are
never intrinsic to the quantum object: “Value actualization is a relational notion like
velocity” (Rovelli, 2018, p. 6). The velocity of something is always relative to some
observer37 and the same is the case for the value of all properties in relational quantum mechanics. While Rovelli’s mode of presentation remains one where the value
is ascribed to the observed object or system, it seems equivalent to adopt a more
relational mode where velocity, for instance, is the relative movement of observer
and observed. This comes very close to Barad’s ascription of properties to the relational whole of phenomena.
Furthermore, as is also the case in agential realism, there is no inherent boundary
between object and observer in relational quantum mechanics: “Standard quantum
mechanics requires us to distinguish system from observer, but it allows us freedom
in drawing the line that distinguishes the two” (Rovelli, 1996, p. 1643). This split—
or agential cut in Barad’s terminology—is required, according to Rovelli, since the
observer cannot be part of the quantum mechanical description in terms of wave
function, if the observer is to determine the value of some observable related to the
object. This feature is central to Rovelli’s response to the measurement problem
where O is an observer measuring and thereby observing a determinate value for
some initially superposed observable of the system, S.
The unitary evolution does not break down for mysterious physical quantum jumps, due to unknown efects, but simply because O is not giving a full
dynamical description of the interaction. O cannot have a full description of
the interaction of S with himself (O), because his information is correlation,
and there is no meaning in being correlated with oneself (Rovelli, 1996, p.
1666).
Another observer, P, who describes the combined system of S and O prior to a
measurement, will describe it as a superposed state where S and O are correlated (or
entangled, in technical terms). There is no contradiction here, as Rovelli observes,
since the determinate value ascribed by O to S is relative to O, whereas the superposed state is relative to P. In parallel, Barad emphasizes that “measuring agencies”
cannot determine their entanglement with the measured system and remarks in reply
to the measurement problem that:
we are either describing a mark on the ‘measuring agency’ […], in which case
what it measures is its correlation with the system with which it intra-acts,
constituting a particular phenomenon; or we make a diferent placement of the
37 It is important here to emphasize that relational quantum mechanics endorses a very liberal notion
of ‘observer’ “where an observer can be any physical system” (Smerlak & Rovelli, 2007, p. 429). This
might be another diference to agential realism where a measurement involves leaving a mark on the
measuring agency.
8250 Synthese (2021) 199:8231–8255
1 3
agential cut, using a diferent experimental arrangement such that the complete
‘original’ phenomenon, this time including what was previously marked as
the ‘measuring agency,’ is being measured by the ‘new’ ‘measuring agency,’
in which case it is possible to characterize the existing entanglement” (Barad,
2007, p. 348).
Analogous to relational quantum mechanics, the phenomenon constituted by the
measuring agency and system has a determinate value for the measurement, whereas
an outside observer has another description.
However, there are also important diferences between these two solutions to the
measurement problem. For Barad, there is no collapse or rather no destruction of the
entanglement between observer and observed upon measurement. The appearance to
the contrary arises from the fact that the measuring apparatus cannot measure itself;
however, the entanglement is there all along: “we should not conclude from the fact
that the entanglement is not made explicit by this measurement that the entanglement has become ontologically ‘disentangled’” (Barad, 2007, p. 348). As such,
Barad seems to suggest that the description obtained by a measuring agency within
a phenomenon is incomplete, since it does not include this “extension of entanglements that take place through measurement intra-actions” (Barad, 2007, p. 350). In
contrast, Rovelli insists that the wave function with its superposition—and thus possible entanglement—is merely a bookkeeping device. Describing a quantum event
as “the actualization of the value of a variable in an interaction”, Rovelli argues that
“[t]he proper ontology for [relational quantum mechanics] is a sparse ontology of
(relational) quantum events happening at interactions between physical systems”
(2018, p. 7; see also Smerlak & Rovelli, 2007). The world consists of a sequence
of interactions between systems where physical quantities take determinate values,
which means, of course, that the systems precede the interactions.
While the values remain relational, this ontology of real systems and interactions is profoundly diferent from the relational holism entailed by the treatment of
phenomena as the ontological primitive in agential realism. In this case, however,
this ontological diference signifes more than the distinctiveness of agential realism
compared to other interpretations of quantum mechanics. Any theory featuring collapse upon measurement faces the difculty of explaining the collapse (or at least
indicate when a collapse takes place and when contact between systems follows the
unitary evolution given by the Schrödinger equation).38
However, in rejecting the reality of the wave function, there is no ontological collapse in relational quantum mechanics (see Dorato (2016, sec. 3.2) for a discussion).
It is simply a brute fact in relational quantum mechanics that the quantum events
follow the pattern specifed by the quantum formalism (in a relative state formulation (Everett, 1957)).39 Agential realism cannot help itself to a similar solution: The
intra-actions within phenomena enact boundaries of system and measuring agency
38 See Brown (2009) for a discussion of this issue in the context of relational quantum mechanics.
39 While this leaves no contradiction in relational quantum mechanics, Laudisa (2019) argues that it is
not explanatorily satisfactory to simply treat this evolution as a brute fact.
8251
1 3
Synthese (2021) 199:8231–8255
that produces determinate values for observables, but at the same time these two
systems become (ontologically) entangled (though this is not explicit in the measurement and can only be measured by a new external measuring agency.) It is true,
as Barad remarks, that the system “appears as a mixture if the degrees of freedom of
the instruments are bracketed” (2007, p. 346), but this does not explain why a measurement fnds one rather than another value associated with the eigenstates of the
(improper) mixture. Rovelli’s strategy of relational values and states does nothing to
resolve this issue.
On Rovelli’s view, there is no contradiction in assigning a determinate value to
the phenomenon comprising of system, S, and observer, O,—in Rovelli’s terms, a
determinate value to S relative to O—and ascribing an entangled state to S+O relative to an external observer, P. This, however, provides no explanation why O fnds
a determinate value when Barad insists that S and O are not ontologically disentangled by the measurement. Barad can of course resort to Rovelli’s solution, but this
would compromise the ontological relational holism that drives many of the other
alleged consequences of agential realism detailed in Sect. 2. There might be other
more subtle ways to address the measurement problem within the framework of
agential realism, but if nothing else, the present discussion exposes the need to supplement the many explorations of uses of agential realism in interdisciplinary work
with a study of how it fares when faced with the standard foundational questions of
quantum mechanics. In the absence of such studies, even saying that agential realism
is consistent with quantum mechanics involves a leap of faith.
6 Conclusion
As we have seen, Karen Barad’s invocation of Bohr’s view on quantum mechanics in support of her own agential realism is based on a substantial misreading of
his philosophy. Apart from her ontological interpretation of Bohr’s use of the word
“phenomena”, which does not correspond to Bohr’s epistemic usage, she also
wrongly believes that Bohr wants to eliminate the epistemic distinctions between
subject-object, knower-known, and word-world. Again, very little in Bohr’s writings
backs such a claim. Although Barad is not the frst writer who interprets Bohr as a
realist, we have also seen that her realist interpretation is radical diferent from others’. With that said, Barad could be seen as following other recently infuential interpretations of quantum mechanics such as QBism (e.g. Fuchs et al., 2014) that also
draws inspiration from Bohr without, however, claiming that they represent Bohr’s
actual views. This is consistent with Barad’s primary ambition to determine what
“epistemological and ontological issues that quantum physics forces us to confront.”
Nonetheless, there are interpretations of quantum mechanics whose epistemology
and ontology are radically diferent from that of agential realism, Bohmian mechanics being an example. Barad’s interpretation is at best one among many interpretations of quantum mechanics. In other words, agential realism is not forced upon us
by quantum mechanics despite the occasional impressions to the contrary in Barad’s
writings. Moreover, even as an interpretation of quantum mechanics, agential realism has its challenges; especially in relation to the measurement problem where
8252 Synthese (2021) 199:8231–8255
1 3
further study is needed to assess whether the agential realist account of this problem
is even coherent.
As social theorizing, Barad’s ideas are profound, interesting, and thought provoking and we have not argued here that agential realism is without any merits. We have
only argued that, if any, these do not stem from quantum mechanics.
Acknowledgements We are grateful to Henry Folse for comments and clarifcations on his interpretation
of Bohr’s writings. Rasmus Jaksland would also like to thank Hanne Andersen for discussion and the
encouragement to pursue this work.
Funding Open access funding provided by NTNU Norwegian University of Science and Technology
(incl St. Olavs Hospital – Trondheim University Hospital).
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License,
which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as
you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article
are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the
material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is
not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission
directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licen
ses/by/4.0/.
References
Aronowitz, S. (1988). Science as power: Discourse and ideology in modern society. University of Minnesota Press.
Bächtold, M. (2017). On Bohr’s epistemological contribution to the quantum-classical cut problem. In J.
Faye & H. J. Folse (Eds.), Niels Bohr and the philosophy of physics: Twenty-frst-century perspectives. (pp. 235–252). Bloomsbury Academic.
Barad, K. (1984). Minimal lattice theory of fermions. Physical Review D, 30(6), 1305–1309. https://doi.
org/10.1103/PhysRevD.30.1305
Barad, K. (1988). Quenched fermions on the Columbia lattice parallel processor. Nuclear Physics B—
Proceedings Supplements, 4(April), 165–169. https://doi.org/10.1016/0920-5632(88)90096-5
Barad, K. (2003). Posthumanist performativity: Toward an understanding of how matter comes to matter.
Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 28(3), 801–831
Barad, K. (2007). Meeting the Universe Halfway. Duke University Press.
Bell, J. S. (1964). On the Einstein Podolsky Rosen paradox. Physics Physique Fizika, 1(3), 195–200
Bell, J. S. (2001). The theory of local beables. In M. Bell, K. Gottfried, & M. Veltman (Eds.), John S.
Bell on the foundations of quantum mechanics. (pp. 50–60). World Scientifc.
Belot, G. (2012). Quantum states for primitive ontologists. European Journal for Philosophy of Science,
2(1), 67–83. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13194-011-0024-8
Bohm, D. (1952). A suggested interpretation of the quantum theory in terms of ‘hidden’ variables. I.
Physical Review, 85(2), 166–179. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRev.85.166
Bohr, N. (1949). Discussions with Einstein on epistemological problems in atomic physics. In P. A.
Schilpp (Ed.), Albert Einstein, philosopher–scientist: The library of living philosophers. (Vol. 7, pp.
201–241). Evanston: Open Court.
Bohr, N. [1939] (1958). Natural philosophy and human cultures. In Atomic physics and human knowledge
(pp. 23–31). Wiley.
Bohr, N. [1955] (1958). Unity of knowledge. In Atomic physics and human knowledge (pp. 67–82).
Wiley.
Bohr, N. [1937] (1998). Causality and complementarity. In J. Faye & H. J. Folse (Eds.), Causality and
complementarity. The Philosophical Writings of Niels Bohr (pp. 83–92). Ox Bow Press.
8253
1 3
Synthese (2021) 199:8231–8255
Bohr, N. [1948] (1998). On the notions of causality and complementarity. In J. Faye & H. J. Folse (Eds.),
Causality and complementarity. The Philosophical Writings of Niels Bohr (Vol. 4, pp. 141–49). Ox
Bow Press.
Bohr, N. [1938] (1998). The causality problem in atomic physics. In J. Faye & H. J. Folse (Eds.), Causality and complementarity. The philosophical writings of Niels Bohr (Vol. 4, pp. 94–121). Ox Bow
Press.
Bowman, N. (2019). Here/there/everywhere: Quantum models for decolonizing Canadian State ontoepistemology. Foundations of Science. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10699-019-09610-x
Brown, M. J. (2009). Relational quantum mechanics and the determinacy problem. The British Journal
for the Philosophy of Science, 60(4), 679–695
Camilleri, K., & Schlosshauer, M. (2015). Niels Bohr as philosopher of experiment: Does decoherence
theory challenge Bohr׳s doctrine of classical concepts? Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part B: Studies in History and Philosophy of Modern Physics, 49(February), 73–83
Cartwright, N. (1983). How the laws of physics lie. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/
0198247044.001.0001
DeCanio, S. J. (2017). What is it like to be a social scientist? Critical Review, 29(2), 121–140. https://doi.
org/10.1080/08913811.2017.1316454
Dolphijn, R. (2016). Critical naturalism: A quantum mechanical ethics. Rhizomes. https://doi.org/10.
20415/rhiz/030.e12
Dolphijn, R., & Van der Tuin, I. (2012). New materialism: Interviews & cartographies. Open Humanities
Press. https://doi.org/10.3998/ohp.11515701.0001.001
Dorato, M. (2016). Rovelli’s relational quantum mechanics, anti-monism, and quantum becoming. In A.
Marmodoro & D. Yates (Eds.), The metaphysics of relations.Oxford University Press. https://doi.
org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198735878.003.0014
Dorato, M. (2017). Bohr’s relational holism and the classical-quantum interaction. In J. Faye & H. J.
Folse (Eds.), Niels Bohr and the philosophy of physics: Twenty-frst-century perspectives. (pp. 133–
154). Bloomsbury Academic.
Dunk, R. A. (2019). Difracting the ‘quantum’ and the ‘social’: Meeting the universe halfway in social
science. Cultural Studies—Critical Methodologies. https://doi.org/10.1177/1532708619880212
Dürr, D., Goldstein, S., & Zanghì, N. (2004). Quantum equilibrium and the role of operators as observables in quantum theory. Journal of Statistical Physics, 116(1), 959–1055. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:
JOSS.0000037234.80916.d0
Dyck, B., & Greidanus, N. S. (2016). Quantum sustainable organizing theory: A study of organization
theory as if matter mattered. Journal of Management Inquiry, 26(1), 32–46. https://doi.org/10.1177/
1056492616656407
Esfeld, M., Hubert, M., Lazarovici, D., & Dürr, D. (2014). The ontology of bohmian mechanics. The
British Journal for the Philosophy of Science, 65(4), 773–796. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjps/axt019
Everett, H. (1957). ‘Relative state’ formulation of quantum mechanics. Reviews of Modern Physics,
29(3), 454–462. https://doi.org/10.1103/RevModPhys.29.454
Favrholdt, D. (1994). Niels Bohr and realism. In J. Faye & H. J. Folse (Eds.), Niels Bohr and contemporary philosophy. (pp. 77–96). Dordrecht: Springer.
Faye, J. (1991). Niels Bohr: His heritage and legacy, an anti-realist view of quantum mechanics. Kluwer
Academic Publishers.
Faye, J. (2017). Complementarity and human nature. In J. Faye & H. J. Folse (Eds.), Niels Bohr and the
philosophy of physics: Twenty-frst-century perspectives. (pp. 115–131). Bloomsbury Academic.
Faye, J. (2019). Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics. In E. N. Zalta (Ed.), The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy. https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2014/entries/qm-copenhagen/.
Folse, H. J. (1985). The philosophy of Niels Bohr: The framework of complementarity. North Holland.
Folse, H. J. (1986). Niels Bohr, complementarity, and realism. PSA: Proceedings of the Biennial Meeting
of the Philosophy of Science Association, 1986, 96–104
Folse, H. J. (1994). Bohr’s framework of complementarity and the realism debate. In J. Faye & H. J.
Folse (Eds.), Niels Bohr and contemporary philosophy. (pp. 119–139). Springer.
Folse, H. J. (2017). Complementarity and pragmatic epistemology: A comparison of Bohr and CI Lewis.
In J. Faye & H. J. Folse (Eds.), Niels Bohr and the philosophy of physics: Twenty-frst-century perspectives. (pp. 91–114). Bloomsbury Academic.
de Freitas, E. (2016). Karen Barad. In E. de Freitas & M. Walshaw (Eds.), Alternative theoretical frameworks for mathematics education research: Theory meets data. (pp. 149–173). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-33961-0_7
8254 Synthese (2021) 199:8231–8255
1 3
French, S., & Ladyman, J. (2003). Remodelling structural realism: Quantum physics and the metaphysics
of structure. Synthese, 136(1), 31–56
Fuchs, C. A., David Mermin, N., & Schack, R. (2014). An introduction to QBism with an application to
the locality of quantum mechanics. American Journal of Physics, 82(8), 749–754. https://doi.org/10.
1119/1.4874855
Fuller, S. (2018). A quantum leap for social theory. Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour, 48(2),
177–182. https://doi.org/10.1111/jtsb.12166
Goldstein, S. (2017). Bohmian mechanics. In E. N. Zalta (Ed.), Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy.
https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2017/entries/qm-bohm/.
Grandy, D. A. (2010). Everyday quantum reality. Indiana University Press. https://www.scopus.com/
inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84896155353&partnerID=40&md5=4e8e414922079cf6e9f4d87c9
92e4801.
Hacking, I. (1983). Representing and intervening: Introductory topics in the philosophy of natural science. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511814563
Halvorson, H. (2019). To Be a realist about quantum theory. In O. Lombardi, S. Fortin, C. López, & F.
Holik (Eds.), Quantum worlds: Perspectives on the ontology of quantum mechanics.Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108562218.010
Hamerof, S., & Penrose, R. (1996a). Conscious events as orchestrated space-time selections. Journal of
Consciousness Studies, 3(1), 36–53
Hamerof, S., & Penrose, R. (1996b). Orchestrated reduction of quantum coherence in brain microtubules: A model for consciousness. Mathematics and Computers in Simulation, 40(3), 453–480.
https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-4754(96)80476-9
Hamerof, S., & Penrose, R. (2014). Consciousness in the universe: A REVIEW of the ‘Orch OR’ theory.
Physics of Life Reviews, 11(1), 39–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plrev.2013.08.002
Harding, S. (1986). The science question in feminism. Cornell University Press.
Harding, S. (1991). Whose science? Whose knowledge? Cornell University Press.
Harrell, M. (2016). On the possibility of feminist philosophy of physics. In M. C. Amoretti & N. Vassallo
(Eds.), Meta-philosophical refection on feminist philosophies of science (pp. 15–34). https://doi.
org/10.1007/978-3-319-26348-9_2.
Haven, E., & Khrennikov, A. (2013). Quantum social science. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.
org/10.1017/CBO9781139003261
Hayles, K. (1984). The Cosmic Web. Cornell University Press.
Hollin, G., Forsyth, I., Giraud, E., & Potts, T. (2017). (Dis)Entangling Barad: Materialisms and ethics.
Social Studies of Science, 47(6), 918–941. https://doi.org/10.1177/0306312717728344
Honner, J. (1987). The description of nature: Niels Bohr and the philosophy of quantum physics. (Vol.
179)Oxford University Press.
Howard, D. (1994). What makes a classical concept classical? In J. Faye & H. J. Folse (Eds.), Niels Bohr
and contemporary philosophy. (pp. 201–229). Dordrecht: Springer.
Jaksland, R. (2020). Norms of testimony in broad interdisciplinarity: The case of quantum mechanics in critical theory. Journal for General Philosophy of Science. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s10838-020-09523-5
Keller, E. F. (1995). Refections on Gender and Science. Yale University Press.
Kirby, V. (2011). Quantum anthropologies: Life at large. Duke University Press.
Klein, J. T. (1990). Interdisciplinarity: History, theory, & practice. Wayne State University Press.
Kochen, S., & Specker, E. (1968). The problem of hidden variables in quantum mechanics. Indiana University Mathematics Journal, 17(1), 59–87
Laudisa, F. (2019). Open problems in relational quantum mechanics. Journal for General Philosophy of
Science, 50(2), 215–230. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10838-019-09450-0
Lazarovici, D., Oldofredi, A., & Esfeld, M. (2018). Observables and unobservables in quantum mechanics: How the no-hidden-variables theorems support the Bohmian particle ontology. Entropy. https://
doi.org/10.3390/e20050381
Mermin, N. D. (1998). What is quantum mechanics trying to tell us? American Journal of Physics, 66(9),
753–767. https://doi.org/10.1119/1.18955
Murdoch, D. R. (1987). Niels Bohr’s philosophy of physics. Cambridge University Press.
Nadeau, R., & Kafatos, M. (2001). The non-local universe: The new physics and matters of the mind.
Oxford University Press. http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/ntnu/detail.action?docID=430482.
Petersen, A. (1963). The philosophy of Niels Bohr. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, 19(7), 8–14
8255
1 3
Synthese (2021) 199:8231–8255
Pickering, A. (1984). Constructing quarks: A sociological history of particle physics. Edinburgh University Press.
Pinch, T. (2011). Karen Barad, quantum mechanics, and the paradox of mutual exclusivity. Social Studies
of Science, 41(3), 431–441
Plotnitsky, A. (1994). Complementarity: Anti-epistemology after Bohr and Derrida. Duke University
Press.
Popper, K. R. (1962). Conjectures and refutations: The growth of scientifc knowledge. Routledge.
Richardson, S. S. (2010). Feminist philosophy of science: History, contributions, and challenges. Synthese, 177(3), 337–362. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11229-010-9791-6
Rovelli, C. (1996). Relational quantum mechanics. International Journal of Theoretical Physics, 35(8),
1637–1678. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02302261
Rovelli, C. (2018). Space is blue and birds fy through it. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences, 376(2123), 20170312. https://doi.org/10.
1098/rsta.2017.0312
Schlosshauer, M., & Camilleri, K. (2017). Bohr and the problem of the quantum-to-classical transition. In
J. Faye & H. J. Folse (Eds.), Niels Bohr and the philosophy of physics: Twenty-frst-century perspectives. (pp. 223–233). Bloomsbury Academic.
Seager, W. (2018). The philosophical and scientifc metaphysics of David Bohm. Entropy, 20(7), 493.
https://doi.org/10.3390/e20070493
Smerlak, M., & Rovelli, C. (2007). Relational EPR. Foundations of Physics, 37(3), 427–445. https://doi.
org/10.1007/s10701-007-9105-0
Smith, T. S. J. (2016). What ever happened to quantum geography? Toward a new qualifed naturalism.
Geoforum, 71(May), 5–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2016.02.016
Stapp, H. (1972). The Copenhagen interpretation. American Journal of Physics, 40, 1098–1116
Teller, P. (1989). Relativity, relational holism, and the Bell’s inequalities. In J. T. Cushing & E. McMullin
(Eds.), Philosophical consequences of quantum theory. (pp. 208–223). University of Notre Dame
Press.
Thomas, P. (2018). Quantum art & uncertainty. Intellect.
Vetlesen, A. J. (2019). Cosmologies of the anthropocene. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429060
564
Waldner, D. (2017). Schrödinger’s cat and the dog that didn’t bark: Why quantum mechanics is (probably) irrelevant to the social sciences. Critical Review, 29(2), 199–233. https://doi.org/10.1080/08913
811.2017.1323431
Wegter-McNelly, K. (2011). The entangled God: Divine relationality and quantum physics. Routledge.
https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203805923
Wendt, A. (2015). Quantum mind and social science: Unifying physical and social ontology. Cambridge
University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781316005163
Zinkernagel, H. (2015). Are we living in a quantum world? Bohr and quantum fundamentalism. In One
hundred years of the Bohr atom: Proceedings from a conference. Scientia Danica. Series M: Mathematica et Physica 1 (pp. 419–434). Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab.
Zinkernagel, H. (2016). Niels Bohr on the wave function and the classical/quantum divide. Studies in
History and Philosophy of Science Part B: Studies in History and Philosophy of Modern Physics,
53, 9–19
Publisher’s Note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published
maps and institutional afliations.
Synthese is a copyright of Springer, 2021. All Rights Reserved.