Electronic copy available at: http://ssrn.com/abstract=1804514
European Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies
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Foreign Direct Investment Theories:
An Overview of the Main FDI Theories
Vintila Denisia
Academy of Economic Studies, Bucharest, [email protected]
Abstract
Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) acquired an important role in the international economy after the Second
World War. Theoretical studies on FDI have led to a better understanding of the economic mechanism and
the behavior of economic agents, both at micro and macro level allowing the opening of new areas of study
in economic theory.
To understand foreign direct investment must first understand the basic motivations that cause a firm to
invest abroad rather than export or outsource production to national firms. The purpose of this study is to
identify the main trends in FDI theory and highlight how these theories were developed, the motivations
that led to the need for new approaches to enrich economic theory of FDI. Although several researchers
have tried to explain the phenomenon of FDI, we cannot say there is a generally accepted theory, every new
evidence adding some new elements and criticism to the previous ones.
Keywords: foreign direct investments, internalization theory, eclectic paradigm
JEL Classification: E60, F21
Introduction
Nowadays the issue of foreign direct investments is being paid more attention, both at
national and international level. There are many theoretical papers that examine foreign
direct investments (FDI)’s issues, and main research on the motivations underlying FDI
were developed by J. Dunning, S. Hymer or R.Vernon. Economists believe that FDI is an
important element of economic development in all countries, especially in the developing
ones.
The conclusion reached after several empirical studies on the relationship between FDI
and economic development is that the effects of FDI are complex. From a macro
perspective, they are often regarded as generators of employment, high productivity,
competiveness, and technology spillovers. Especially for the least developed countries,
FDI means higher exports, access to international markets and international currencies,
being an important source of financing, substituting bank loans.
There is some evidence to support the idea that FDI promote the competitiveness of local
firms. Blomstrom (1994) finds positive evidence in Mexico and Indonesia, while
Smarzynska (2002) found that local suppliers in Lithuania benefited spill over from
supplying foreign customers.
Caves (1996) considers that the efforts made by various countries in attracting foreign
direct investments are due to the potential positive effects that this would have on
economy. FDI would increase productivity, technology transfer, managerial skills, knowhow, international production networks, reducing unemployment, and access to external
markets.
Borensztein (1998) supports these ideas, considering FDI as ways of achieving
technology spillovers, with greater contribution to the economic growth than would have
Electronic copy available at: http://ssrn.com/abstract=1804514
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national investments. The importance of technology transfer is highlighted also by
Findlay who believes that FDI leads to a spillover of advanced technologies to local firms
(Findlay, 1978).
On the other hand, FDI may crowd out local enterprises and have a negative impact on
economic development. Hanson (2001) considers that positive effects are very few, and
Greenwood (2002) argues that most effects would be negative. Lipsey (2002) concludes
that there are positive effects, but there is not a consistent relationship between FDI stock
and economic growth. The potential positive or negative effects on the economy may also
depend on the nature of the sector in which investment takes place, according to
Hirschman (1958) that stated the positive effects of agriculture and mining are limited.
When multinational corporations enter different foreign markets it is market failures that
attract FDI and give them the advantage in those markets. Foreign investors consider that
their superior technology and knowledge will give them the opportunity to obtain market
share.
Despite the fact that many researchers have tried to explain the phenomenon of FDI, we
cannot say there is a general theory accepted. But, according to Kindleberger (1969)
everyone agrees on one point, in a world characterized by perfect competition, foreign
direct investment would no longer exist.
Thus, if markets work effectively and there are no barriers in terms of trade or
competition, international trade is the only way to participate to the international market.
There must be a form of distortion that determines the realization of direct investment,
and Hymer was the first who noticed this. He believes that always local firms will be
better informed about local economic environment, and for foreign direct investments to
take place, two conditions are necessary:

foreign firms must possess certain advantages that allow them that such an
investment to be viable;

the market of these benefits has to be imperfect (Kindleberger, 1969).
From a macroeconomic point of view, FDI is a particular form of capital flows across
borders, from countries of origin to host countries, which are found in the balance of
payments. The variable of interest is: capital flows and stocks, revenues obtained from
investments.
The microeconomic point of view, tries to explain the motivations for investment across
national boundaries from the point of view of the investor. It also examines the
consequences to investors, to the country of origin and to the host country, of the
operations of the multinationals rather than investment flows and stock. (Lipsey, 2001)
In the period immediately following the Second World War, international production was
a small part of international affairs, while the attention was directed towards those
components which had an important share (e.g. international trade). Since the 1960s, the
phenomenon of transnational corporations and FDI has begun to gain importance.
The first attempt to explain the FDI was considered Ricardo’s theory of comparative
advantage. However, FDI cannot be explained by this theory, which is based on two
countries, two products and a perfect mobility of factors at local level. Such model could
not even allow FDI. Thus, as Ricardo’s comparative advantage theory fail to explain the
rising share of FDI, other models were used, such as portfolio theory. This attempt was
designed to fail, because the theory explains the achievement of foreign investments in a
portfolio, but could not explain the direct investments. According to the theory, as long as
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there is no risk or barriers in the way of capital movement, the capital will go from
countries with low interest rates to countries with high interest rates. But these allegations
have no basis in reality, and the introduction of risk and barriers to capital movement
erodes the veracity of the theory, and capital can move freely in any direction (Hosseini
2005).
Although more realistic, the new theories of international trade still cannot capture the
entire complexity of FDI and other forms of international production. The new theories of
international trade, still cannot explain foreign direct and other forms of international
investment (Hosseini 2005).
Robert Mundell has tried to explain the FDI through a model of international trade,
involving two countries, two goods, two production factors and two identical production
functions in both countries, where production of a good requires a higher proportion of a
factor than the other. Neither Mundell’s model could explain international production
through FDI, because foreign investment incorporated were portfolio investment or shortterm investment (Mundell, 1957).
Japanese researchers Kojima and Ozawa have tried to create a model to explain both
international trade and foreign direct investment. They started from the model developed
by Mundell and tried to develop it and improve it. Thus, in the model developed by the
two Japanese FDI takes place if a country has comparative disadvantage in producing a
product, while international trade is based on comparative advantage. (Kojima and
Ozawa, 1984).
Internalisation theory provides an explanation of the growth of the multinational
enterprise (MNE) and gives insights into the reasons for foreign direct investment.
Theories of FDI may be classified under the following headings:
1. Production Cycle Theory of Vernon
Production cycle theory developed by Vernon in 1966 was used to explain certain types
of foreign direct investment made by U.S. companies in Western Europe after the Second
World War in the manufacturing industry.
Vernon believes that there are four stages of production cycle: innovation, growth,
maturity and decline. According to Vernon, in the first stage the U.S. transnational
companies create new innovative products for local consumption and export the surplus
in order to serve also the foreign markets. According to the theory of the production
cycle, after the Second World War in Europe has increased demand for manufactured
products like those produced in USA. Thus, American firms began to export, having the
advantage of technology on international competitors.
If in the first stage of the production cycle, manufacturers have an advantage by
possessing new technologies, as the product develops also the technology becomes
known. Manufacturers will standardize the product, but there will be companies that you
will copy it. Thereby, European firms have started imitating American products that U.S.
firms were exporting to these countries. US companies were forced to perform production
facilities on the local markets to maintain their market shares in those areas.
This theory managed to explain certain types of investments in Europe Western made by
U.S. companies between 1950-1970. Although there are areas where Americans have not
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possessed the technological advantage and foreign direct investments were made during
that period.
2. The Theory of Exchange Rates on Imperfect Capital Markets
This is another theory which tried to explain FDI. Initially the foreign exchange risk has
been analyzed from the perspective of international trade. Itagaki (1981) and Cushman
(1985) analyzed the influence of uncertainty as a factor of FDI. In the only empirical
analysis made so far, Cushman shows that real exchange rate increase stimulated FDI
made by USD, while a foreign currency appreciation has reduced American FDI.
Cushman concludes that the dollar appreciation has led to a reduction in U.S. FDI by
25%.
However, currency risk rate theory cannot explain simultaneous foreign direct investment
between countries with different currencies. The sustainers argue that such investments
are made in different times, but there are enough cases that contradict these claims.
3. The Internalisation Theory
This theory tries to explain the growth of transnational companies and their motivations
for achieving foreign direct investment. The theory was developed by Buckley and
Casson, in 1976 and then by Hennart, in 1982 and Casson, in 1983. Initially, the theory
was launched by Coase in 1937 in a national context and Hymer in 1976 in an
international context. In his Doctoral Dissertation, Hymer identified two major
determinants of FDI. One was the removal of competition. The other was the advantages
which some firms possess in a particular activity (Hymer, 1976).
Buckley and Casson, who founded the theory demonstrates that transnational companies
are organizing their internal activities so as to develop specific advantages, which then to
be exploited. Internalisation theory is considered very important also by Dunning, who
uses it in the eclectic theory, but also argues that this explains only part of FDI flows.
Hennart (1982) develops the idea of internalization by developing models between the
two types of integration: vertical and horizontal.
Hymer is the author of the concept of firm-specific advantages and demonstrates that FDI
take place only if the benefits of exploiting firm-specific advantages outweigh the relative
costs of the operations abroad. According to Hymer (1976) the MNE appears due to the
market imperfections that led to a divergence from perfect competition in the final
product market. Hymer has discussed the problem of information costs for foreign firms
respected to local firms, different treatment of governments, currency risk (Eden and
Miller, 2004). The result meant the same conclusion: transnational companies face some
adjustment costs when the investments are made abroad. Hymer recognized that FDI is a
firm-level strategy decision rather than a capital-market financial decision.
4. The Eclectic Paradigm of Dunning
The eclectic theory developed by professor Dunning is a mix of three different theories of
direct foreign investments (O-L-I):
1) “O” from Ownership advantages:
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This refer to intangible assets, which are, at least for a while exclusive possesses of the
company and may be transferred within transnational companies at low costs, leading
either to higher incomes or reduced costs.
But TNCs operations performed in different countries face some additional costs.
Thereby to successfully enter a foreign market, a company must have certain
characteristics that would triumph over operating costs on a foreign market. These
advantages are the property competences or the specific benefits of the company. The
firm has a monopoly over its own specific advantages and using them abroad leads to
higher marginal profitability or lower marginal cost than other competitors. (Dunning,
1973, 1980, 1988).
There are three types of specific advantages9:
a) Monopoly advantages in the form of privileged access to markets through
ownership of natural limited resources, patents, trademarks;
b) Technology, knowledge broadly defined so as to contain all forms of
innovation activities
c) Economies of large size such as economies of learning, economies of scale and
scope, greater access to financial capital;
2) “L” from Location:
When the first condition is fulfilled, it must be more advantageous for the company that
owns them to use them itself rather than sell them or rent them to foreign firms.
Location advantages of different countries are de key factors to determining who will
become host countries for the activities of the transnational corporations.
The specific advantages of each country can be divided into three categories10:
a) The economic benefits consist of quantitative and qualitative factors of
production, costs of transport, telecommunications, market size etc.
b) Political advantages: common and specific government policies that affect FDI
flows
c) Social advantages: includes distance between the home and home countries,
cultural diversity, attitude towards strangers etc.
3) “I” from Internalisation:
Supposing the first two conditions are met, it must be profitable for the company the use
of these advantages, in collaboration with at least some factors outside the country of
origin (Dunning, 1973, 1980, 1988).
This third characteristic of the eclectic paradigm OLI offers a framework for assessing
different ways in which the company will exploit its powers from the sale of goods and
services to various agreements that might be signed between the companies.
As cross-border market Internalisation benefits is higher the more the firm will want to
engage in foreign production rather than offering this right under license, franchise.
Eclectic paradigm OLI shows that OLI parameters are different from company to
company and depend on context and reflect the economic, political, social
characteristics of the host country. Therefore the objectives and strategies of the firms, the
9 http://www.investmentsandincome.com/investments/oli-paradigm.html)
10 http://www.investmentsandincome.com/investments/oli-paradigm.html
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58
magnitude and pattern of production will depend on the challenges and opportunities
offered by different types of countries.11
Conclusions
All the empirical results reveal that for FDI there is not a unified theoretical explanation,
and it seems at this point very unlikely that such a unified theory will emerge.
Neoclassical trade theory failed to explain the existence of Multi National Corporations.
Explanations in terms of differences in rates of return between countries could explain
portfolio investments, but foreign direct investments (FDI). It was not until Hymer
presented his work, in 1960, of foreign direct investments and multinational enterprises
that a satisfying explanation was at hand.
After all these different attempts to explain why FDI take place and the pioneering work
by Hymer (1976), the conceptual framework used until very recently was the one
proposed by Dunning (1977), the OLI paradigm.
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